Efnafræði III, verklegar æfingar

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Æfing 1 - Tilraunastofan algeng tæki, tækni og öryggi

Tilgangur að kynna sr og æfa algeng vinnubrögð á tilraunastofu til þess að verða öruggur í meðferð tækja og læra að velja hentugustu áhöldin hverju sinni (sjá vinnuhefti bls.1).

Efni og tæki sjá vinnuhefti bls. 1-1

Framkvæmdarlýsing sjá vinnuhefti bls. 1-1

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Niðurstöður svör við spurningum úr vinnuhefti koma í rttri röð undir yfirskrift hvers liðar fyrir sig.

Bunsenbrennarinn

Mynd 1 sýnir loga á bunsenbrennara sem fenginn var með því að hafa loftinntakið á brennaranum lokað og stilla gasinntakið þannig að login yrði um 10cm á hæð. Guli flöktandi bjarminn í loganum skýrist með því að of lítið súrefnisstreymi er til staðar til að oxa allt própangasið í koldíoxíð og vatn þannig að hluti þess oxast aðeins upp í kolefni sem myndar agnir í loganum og þær glóa með gulum lit.

Efnajafnan fyrir brunann

CH8 + O ® C + CO + 4HO

eða CH8 + 4O ® C + CO + 4HO

Blái, stöðugi bjarminn í loganum myndast þar sem enn er nægjanlegt súrefni til staðar. Þá oxast própangasið fullkomlega í koldíoxíð og vatn og engar glóandi agnir myndast.

Efnajafnan fyrir brunann

CH8 + 5O ® CO + 4HO

Mynd sýnir loga á bunsenbrennara sem var fenginn með því að opna loftinntakið að hluta og stilla gasinntakið þannig að login yrði u.þ.b. 7cm hár. Í honum eru keilur, sú innsta er ljós blá, þar fyrir utan er litlaus keila en ysta keilan er dökkfjólublá. Þessir ólíku litir skýrast af því að agnir frá própangasinu brenna á mism. stöðum í loganum þar sem þær örvast og aförvast og senda frá sr ljós með ólíkar bylgjulengdir. Hver litur hefur þannig ákv. bylgjulengd og ákv. hitastig.

Þegar postulínsdeigla var borin í logann á mynd 1varð deiglan svört af sóti þegar kolefnisagnirnar í loganum settust utan á hana. Þegar sótug deiglan var borin í heitasta hluta logans á mynd (~1500°C) fyrir ofan innstu keiluna hreinsaðist sótið aftur af henni, þ.e. kolefnisagnirnar brunnu upp.

Efnagreiningarvigtar

Eftirfarandi niðurstöður fengust úr vigtun

Vigt tilr.glas deigla bikarglas mæliglas m.glas pappír mynt

m 5mL vatni

grófvigt 16,7 4,7 1,7 54, 58,8

fínvigt 16,7751 4,87 0,868 8,48

Mæliniðurstöður eru gefnar í g.

Filtrun

BaCl(aq) + NaSO4(aq) ® BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)

Við filtrunina reyndist nauðsynlegt að nota fíngötóttan pappír nr. en grófari pappír nr.1 var ekki nægilega þttur til að filtra botnfallið.

Útreikningar á mólleysni BaSO4

Leysnimargfeldi, Ksp fyrir BaSO4(s) = 1,510- við 5°C (skv. Zumdahl)

BaSO4(s) ® Ba+ + SO4-

Ksp = [Ba+] [SO4-]

1,510- = x

x = ,10-5

Mólleysni BaSO4 = ,10-5mól/L

Mæliflöskur

Gefnar upplýsingar

Eðlisþyngd 7% HCl lausnar 1,1Kg/L Þ 1,1Kg lausn/L lausn

Massaprósenta HCl 7% HCl Þ 7g HCL/100g lausn

Mólmassi HCl 6,458g/mól Þ 6,46g HCl/mól HClHlutur HCl í eðlisþyngd lausnarinnar

0,7 1,1 Kg/L = 0,440 Kg/L = 440, g/L

massi HCl í 1 L ¸ mólmassa HCl = mólstyrkur sýrunnar

440, g/L ¸ 6,458g/mól = 1,08mól/L

Til að búa til 50 mL af 0,100M HCl

[ ]1 V1 = [ ] V

1,08M V1 = 0,100M 0,5L

V1 = ,0710-L = ,07mL 7% HCl lausn

Títrun

Efnajafnan fyrir títrunina

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ® HO(l) + NaCl(aq)

Tafla með niðurstöðum mælinga

Títrun Aflestur 1 Aflestur DV = DV

númer upphaf lok Afl 1 Afl meðaltal

(1 0,18 1,45 1,7)

0,0 1,58 0,68

0,4 1, 0,80

4 1,64 4,0 0,66

0,71

Meðaltal rúmmáls NaOH sem bætt var út í var fundið út frá niðurstöðum -4 mælingar þar sem fyrsta mæling var ekki marktæk.

Útreikningar á styrk saltsýrunnar

MNaOH = 0,108M

Útreikningar skv. vinnuhefti bls. 1

MHCl = DV ¸ 5,0mL MNaOH

0,71mL ¸ 5,0mL 0,108M = 0,18M HCl lausn

Títrunarkúrfa

Efnavitar eru stórar lífrænar sameindir, veikar sýrur eða veikir basar, sem hafa ólíkan lit eftir því hvort umhverfi þeirra er prótónerað eða ekki. Sýruformið hefur annan lit en basaformið og litbreytingi verður á ákv. pH bili.

HIn H+ + In-

Phenolphthalein er t.d. litlaust á HIn formi en bleikt á basaforminu In-. Litbreyting verður við pH þegar 10% efnavitans hefur gefið frá sr prótónur (skv. Zumdahl). Þannig verður 10% efnisins að breyta um lit til að mannsaugað greini litabreytingu. Eins og sst á mynd af títrunarferli fyrir títrun rammrar sýru með römmum basa helst sýrustig nokkuð stöðugt framan af og ræðst pH þá af styrk sýrunnar. Þegar jafn mörgum mólum af basa hefur verið bætt út í lausnina og upphaflega voru af sýrunni næst svokallaður jafngildispunktur og þá er lausnin hvorki súr n basísk, hefur pH = 7 (gildir bara fyrir títrun sterkra sýra og sterkra basa). Á þessum punkti er umhverfið ekki lengur prótónerað og eftir því sem meira er bætt út í lausnina af títranti verður lausnin meira basísk. Þessi breyting hefur áhrif á jafnvægi efnavitans sem breytir um lit.

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Metatrophosis

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Franz Kafka¡¯s ¡°The Metamorphosis¡±, a depressing short fiction, tells us the story of Gregor Samsa¡¯s metamorphosis to an insect. As Gregor attempted to cope with the helplessness of his predicament, his family started to neglect him and finally wanted to get rid of him. They ignored the fact that Gregor had been the supporter of this family. On the other hand, Gregor was imprisoned by his duty to his family. After Gregor transforms to an insect, although Gregor has insect¡¯s body, he still has a human consciousness, so he is neither a human nor an insect. The title ¡°The Metamorphosis¡± not only directly refers to Gregor¡¯s physical transformation, but it also symbolizes Gregor¡¯s alienation and his escape to freedom.

Alienation is one of the themes in this story; Gregor¡¯s metamorphosis symbolizes his alienation. Long before his metamorphosis into a beetle, Gregor had alienated himself. The story begins with that Gregor Samsa transformed from a human being to a gigantic insect. Anyone, who finds oneself transformed into an insect in the morning, would be extremely shocked. As for Gregor¡¯s reaction, he wondered only momentarily what had happened to him. His room quickly distracted his attention. The only shock with Gregor was that he could not go to work anymore. Thus, we get the impression that Gregor had already alienated himself from his own body. A change of body form was not a big surprise to him. He had merely switched from one foreign body to another from one that was convenient to one that was less convenient. Gregors strange alienation from his body is metamorphosis in a concrete form.

Kafka did not tell us the exact identity of Gregor¡¯s transformation. From the description Kafka gives and the names such as ¡°dung beetle¡± (P40) that the old charwoman called Gregor, we know he resembled a common beetle. The traits common to all insects are far more important than the insects exact identity. Gregors transformation into an insect, then, could be seen as an attempt on his part to alienate himself.

Gregor had a habit that ¡°he had acquired in traveling of locking all doors during the night, even at home¡± (77). By locking doors, Gregor sets up physical barriers between himself and his family. It was as if he could not trust them to not come in and had to guard himself and his privacy even against those he loves. This detail shows why his alienation from his family makes sense. His consideration for his family also seemed to alienate him. He thought he found a good apartment, but his family thought this apartment was too big and hard to manage. After he transformed himself into an insect, he made no effort to communicate with his family. Because of this, his family assumed that he could not understand them. He did nothing else aside from listening. On the other hand, the other three members of his family hoped he would keep to himself and so, they excluded him from their group. This also emphasized the growing distance between Gregor and other human beings.

Gregors alienation from his environment is something that has not changed with his metamorphosis. Whereas earlier he had thought that his room was too small, now he thinks it is a lofty, empty room (88), and altogether too big for his needs. In this way, Gregors room, which he has lived in for years, had never felt like home to him but rather as some foreign place.

Gregor was also alienated from his job before the metamorphosis. He hated his job; he hated traveling; he hated ¡°the bad and irregular meals¡±, he hated ¡°the casual acquaintances that are always new and never become intimate friends¡± (75), and most of all, he hated the treatment he got from his boss.

All the above mentioned show that Gregors entire metamorphosis may be the result of his alienation from everything his job, the society, his family, and humanity. Moreover, his metamorphosis also symbolizes Gregor¡¯s escape to freedom.

We are reminded that Gregor hated his job, but he had to hold his job in order to support his family. Moreover, Gregors parents were in debt to his chief, and Gregor was working primarily to repay that debt; he had already been working at the firm for five years, and must work another five or six before the debt is repaid. The family did not work and relied entirely on Gregor; they even kept on a servant girl to clean for them. Although Gregor hated his job, he had to keep it, and he had to keep this specific job because of the debts. Gregor continued making money but did not make any for himself. Thus, Gregors need to escape his previous life may be something that he could never justify to himself. Gregor liked to look out the window, obviously in some recollection of the sense of freedom that looking out of a window always used to give him. (). His metamorphosis had given him the ability to do so. Finally, he could leave his job and the social order he disliked, and he could lie around in his room without concern for time and debts. His metamorphosis seemed to end his conflict. And yet he could not accept his freedom because his guilt proved stronger than his desire to escape.

His metamorphosis brought him to a different prison. He had been locked in his room, and psychologically, he also remained a slave because he felt guilty when he was not able to support his family anymore. Gregors new prison seemed even worse than his old one. Hearing his family mention money, he threw himself down on the cool leather sofa beside it, he felt so hot with shame and grief (). Finally, he found himself as the biggest burden to his family. It reminded him that his family¡¯s happiness was more important than his life, and so he died by his own choice. On the other hand, it was also another kind of escape to freedom.

It is not surprising that Gregor transformed to an insect due to his alienation, and his alienation makes him desire to escape from the situation he had before. Pessimistically speaking, Gregor does not get the free he wants finally. Even though his metamorphosis had freeed him from his job, he was quickly imprisoned by his guilt. Moreover, his entire family rejected him. His state is even worse than before. His metamorphosis is not a successful way for him to escape.

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World War II

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WORLD WAR II

The immediate causes of World War II were some basic causes, which may be summarized as follows (1) Aggressive nationalism and imperialism on the part of Germany, Italy, and Japan; () The development of new alliances; () The collapse of collective security; (4) Appeasement; (5) Fascism and its doctrines of national aggression, racism, violence and disregard of human rights by Mussolini; (6) The failure of the United States to enter actively into European affairs in the 10s and 10s, and to help stop aggression.

The Axis powers included Germany, Hungary& Japan. The Allied powers consisted of the United States, Britain and France. After the outbreak of the war in 1 the Nazis had a nearly unbroken string of victories. Poland was overrun in less than a month. In 140, following a period of inactivity after the conquest of Poland, the Nazis invaded and occupied Denmark, Norway, Holland and Belgium, without warning. France was attacked next. After Paris fell, France surrendered. Britain was attacked by air with devastating effects but the people under Winston Churchill did not give up and the Royal Air Force held off the "Luftwaffe" attack. A major turnaround took place when America joined the war in 140 after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour. Bulgaria, Romania & Hungary joined Hitler and they overran Greece and Yugoslavia. Russia was invaded despite the non-aggression agreement with Germany. Hitler needed the coal and oil they had to offer. Most of the world and Hitler felt that Russia had been defeated. That was Hitler's biggest mistake!!

There were two important reasons for these early Axis victories. (1) The Allies were caught off guard by the war. They were militarily unprepared. () The Nazis introduced a new type of lightning or blitzkrieg warfare. It involved close coordination of land and air forces; the bombing of plants, airfields, transportation centers, troop concentrations, and civilians; the use of spies, propaganda and sympathizers behind enemy lines (fifth columns); the use of armored (tank) and mechanized divisions. The earliest Allied victories were in North Africa Italian armies were defeated in 140 in Egypt. The allied forces also won the battle of North Africa in 141, that battle ended in October 14.

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The allies looked forward to a better world after the war. The four freedoms that people would have after the war according to Roosevelt were freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. The Atlantic Charter, in August, 141 cited the following points (a) no territorial seizures by Britain or the United States, (b) self-determination for all nations and restoration of freedom to conquered nations, (c) creation of lasting peace based upon freedom from fear and want, (d) freedom of the seas, (e) disarmament of aggressors, (f) international economic cooperation to raise standards of living, (g) peace based on collective security, (h) equal opportunities to all nations for trade and raw materials.

It was truly a global war. More nations took part than in any previous war. All continents and oceans were scenes of military action. Revolutionary new weapons and devices were employed for the first time. These included radar, guided missiles, and most important, the atomic bomb. The airplane (bombers and fighters) came into its own as a weapon of crucial importance. In total deaths and in economic and financial costs World War II was about five times as expensive as World War 1; in military deaths alone, it was almost twice as costly. It was estimated that the war cost over a trillion dollars, plus an immense sum in property damages which is impossible to estimate.

Approximately 55 million people died because of the war. Approximately 55 million because nobody knows the true and exact number. Such a massive figure is also difficult to grasp in any meaningful way - it is roughly the total population, men, women, and children, of Great Britain.

The bombing of Japan marked the end of the war. The war resulted in Germany being divided into four parts, one each governed by U.S.A, Russia, Britain and France. This later resulted in the Berlin Wall, which divided Germany into two parts east and west. The country was stripped of all war gains, reduced in size, disarmed, and demilitarized. ) Japan was occupied by American forces under the Supreme Allied Commander, General MacArthur. Japan lost all territories outside her home islands. The nations of Europe, victors and conquered alike, faced the problems of restoring shattered industries; rebuilding homes, schools, hospitals, churches, roads and other facilities; and restoring normal trade activities. Some countries, like Belgium and West Germany, recovered rapidly; others like France and Italy, recovered more slowly. The United States financed a large part of this postwar reconstruction.

To eliminate the causes of war and to prevent future catastrophes, the statesmen of the world established a new international peace organization, the United Nations (UN), in 145. An attempt was made in designing the UN to avoid the fatal weakness of the League of Nations. Since its creation, the UN has played an important role in world affairs. There was a decline of colonial empires. The overall effect since the close of World War II has been the virtual liquidation of the major European colonial empires. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from World War II as the two most powerful nations on earth and the tension that remained after the war resulted in the beginning of the cold war. The development of the atomic bomb during World War II ushered in the age of atomic energy many years earlier than it might have come without the wartime emergency.

References

Various websites and links on the Internet related to World War II's causes results and conclusions.

The Military History Of World War Volume 18 By - Col. Trevor Nevitt Dupuy.

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The three failures of the league in the 1930

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The three failures of the league in the 10

1.Japan invaded Manchuria, China, in 11. They felt that it was essential to have control over it, as it was a valuable trade outlet. China seemed to be growing stronger under the rule of Chiang kai-shek and the Japanese feared that they might be excluded from Manchuria. Port Arthur and a privileged position in south Manchuria were given to Japan as a result of the Russo-Japanese war. Since, Japan had invested millions of pounds on the development of industries and railways in Manchuria. In 11,they controlled south Manchurian railway as well as the banking system. As they were suffering from the great depression, they felt that they could not stand by and watch themselves gradually squeezed out of such a valuable chance. The Japanese announced that they had turned Manchuria into an independent state of Manchukuo under the last Chinese emperor, Pu Yi. Though nobody was fooled, no action was taken against them.

When Japan invaded Manchuria, the league ordered the Japanese troops to withdraw. Lord Lytton was sent and he decided that both were wrong and ordered Manchuria to be governed by the league(1). In 1, Japan rejected and withdrew from the league. There were no military and economic sanctions. This was as Britain and France were suffering from the great depression and were reluctant to apply a trade boycott. Also they did not want to risk another chance of being involved in a war as they were ill equipped. Japan defied the league and the prestige of the league was damaged. It was regarded as a failure. The decision made was not firm and no sanctions were carried out. Britain feared that there would be a loss of trade in Far East as a result, compromised world peace.

. Demilitarization of Rhineland(march 16). Hitler enjoyed a series of successes. Hitler took the risk of sending in troops into the demilitarized zone of Rhineland. This was a breach of both the treaty of Versailles and Locarno. Though the troops had orders to withdraw at the first sight of the French opposition, no resistance was offered ,except the usual verbal protests. At the same time, well aware of the mood of pacifism among his opponents, Hitler soothed them by offering a peace treaty that would last for 5 years. Though the French were disturbed by the Germans reoccupation of the Rhineland, the French did not mobilize their troops. They were deeply divided and ultra cautious but received no backing from the British who were impressed by Hitler's offer of a 5-year peace. Lord Lothian was reported to have sent Hitler a telegram congratulating him on his success and also remarked that the Germans had merely entered their 'back garden'. The league took no action on Hitler who went against the treaty of Versailles. The league ceased to have any significant influence on subsequent events. The league remained weak as long as the members pursued their own national interests.

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. Italy attacks Abyssinia(15-16) Mussolini joined Britain and France in condemning the German action of constriction and guaranteeing Austria. Both British and French carefully avoided mentioning the Abyssinian crisis, which was brewing. Mussolini took this to mean that they turned a blind eye to an Italian attack on Abyssinia. If the attack were a success, it would divert attention from internal troubles and provide a new market for Italian exports as Italy was suffering from the great depression. It would also please the nationalists and colonists, avenge the defeat of 186 and also boost Mussolini sagging population .It would secure new markets as well as regime population. Italy existing colonies in east Africa were not rewarding and his attempts to reduce Abyssinia to the position of Albania had failed. The defiance demonstrated the ineffectiveness of collective security. economic sanctions were imposed however it was useless as it excludes exports of oil, coal and steel, though oil would hamper the Italian attack. Non-members of the league continued to trade with Italy and Italy threatened war if supplies were cut off. The league prestige was further damaged when Britain foreign secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare had made a secret deal with Laval, the French prime minister to hand a large section of Abyssinia to Italy. Britain and France were military and economically unprepared for war and avoided actions that would provoke Mussolini to declare war. they were hoping to revive the Stresa Front and use Italy as an ally against Germany. However the Italians were annoyed and grew closer to Hitler, smaller states lost faith in the league and encouraged Hitler to overthrow the treaty of Versailles.

4.the Geneva conference(1-14). The disarmament conference met under Henderson, the British foreign secretary, it largely ignored the worked of the disarmament commission and was handicapped by Russian opposition and the instability of the German politics. France wanted guarantees of mutual security before disarmament, Germany wanted equality, which was rearmament. In 1,Macdonald produced a new plan for a reduction of armaments partly designed to meet Germany's demand for equality, but Hitler was already the chancellor. The French alarmed by the increase in support for the Nazis, refused to disarm and allow Germany equality of armaments with them, they raised difficulties about the weapons to be allowed to Germany. Hitler knew that Britain and Italy sympathized with Germany in Oct 1, the Germans walked out. Hitler also withdrew from the league a week later. Germany now rearmed openly and there was no hope for disarmament and the conference last held its session in 14.Please note that this sample paper on The three failures of the league in the 1930 is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The three failures of the league in the 1930, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The three failures of the league in the 1930 will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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In Plato's Theatetus how succesful is Socrates refutation of Pythagorean Relativism?

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on In Plato's Theatetus how succesful is Socrates refutation of Pythagorean Relativism?. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality In Plato's Theatetus how succesful is Socrates refutation of Pythagorean Relativism? paper right on time.

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In the Theatetus how successful is Socrates' refutation of Protagoran Relativism?

The project of the Theaetetus is to unveil Plato's epistemology, and more directly what he takes to be the nature of knowledge. Theaetetus, a student of Theodorous, puts forth the proposition that knowledge is perception, a view that is attributed to Protagoras and is the crux upon which his most famous dictum rests

'Man is the measure of all things of those that are, that they are, and of those that are not, that they are not.'

To say that knowledge is perception is to say that what one perceives is true, so that the objects of perception are indeed knowledge. The dictum marks that each individual perceiver determines through his perceptions the nature of reality. The implication of the Protagorean definition of knowledge is the denial of any transcendental standard of truth, independent of the individual knower, to which the knower is subject. It is also a denial that there is a reality to be known independent of one's own perceptions either nothing exists beyond perception or whatever exists is unknowable. To assess how successful Socrates' refutation is we must first assess how it is achieved, and from this consider whether Protagorean relativism can still be worthy of merit.

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To begin the refutation of Protagoras, Socrates first makes some preliminary objections. The first he construes is that one can not give such a special authority to man, as Protagoras gives by marking that "man is the measure of all things". Upon his theory it has to be the case that what is perceived by any perceiver is the 'measure of all things' for that perceiver. Thus man deserves no special authority, and Socrates uses the example of a pig's perception to press home this point. Protagoras' reply is that this is merely a debating point, however I agree with David Bostock on this that what Socrates has achieved with his first objection is the cornering of Protagoras using his own theory. Thus 'Protagoras himself can not be any better judge of truth than the ignorant audience which he mocks' . This seemingly debating point sets the tone for the major objections to follow, his vehicle for refutation is the use of Protagoras' theory against himself.

The second objection, which Socrates will later mark as again one of a 'Captious' nature concerns actual meaning which underpins perception. Socrates sees that we 'know what words and sentences mean, but we perceive only the words and sentences themselves and not their meaning.' This objection breaks down the Protagorean claim that what is perceived is knowledge as the must be an intermediary force that is discovering the meaning of perceived objects e.g. the mind. This objection is impressive as it can be seen as Socrates almost testing the water as it were, as it is upon this notion of an intermediary factor which he will build his own positive doctrine. Two other objections which Socrates marks which again are of a simplistic and captious nature are that

(i) If perceiving is knowing, then why does not hearing a foreign language lead to our knowledge of it? Or why does not seeing letters mean that one can read?

(ii) That one can know something by remembering it, but memory is not perception.

After these preliminary objections, Socrates allies with Protagoras out of fairness, and proposes a rebuttal of his own objections on behalf of Protagoras. He has Protagoras distinguish between what is true and what is better. While it may not be truer than that of someone else, one person's perception may nonetheless be better, if the majority makes this determination. Thus, if the majority decides that one mode of being (wisdom) is "better" than another mode of being (foolishness), then it is, so long as the majority does not change its collective mind. Thus Socrates establishes that there is a place for teachers- 'experts' like Protagoras- to help students learn to be "wise".

Socrates major objection draws upon his first preliminary one that he invoked. He points out the self-defeating character of an all-inclusive relativism, as proposed by Protagoras if "Man is the measure of all things," as Protagoras asserts, then the statement itself is relative, so that the opposite statement would be equally true if someone thought it be so. This means that in some cases, Protagoras would be wrong when he is right. To use a logical form to express this, where P stands for Protagoras' theory

 Either no-one believes P, or only Protagoras and his followers believe P

 If no-one believes P, then according to P it is not true for anyone

 If most people reject P it is "more false than true"

 According to P even Protagoras must agree that his opponents' belief that P is false, is itself true.

 Therefore not even Protagoras can accept P

Thus Socrates has placed his refutation of Protagorean relativism, yet how succesful is it? Its success should be judged as to what is established by the refutation. Plato has adapted Protagoras' Relativism to fit into his own epistemology. At best we can say that 'man is the measure of what he is at the time perceiving' . In essence Socrates has actually done nothing, for one who propounds a relativist thesis as Protagoras does refutes himself. Indeed if what he says is true then Protagoras can have no claim over our attention. To conclude this is an 'entirely satisfactory refutation of Protagoras' , for in its placement Plato clears the path, when coupled with the refutation of Heraclitus, to expounded his own thesis of knowledge. He adapts Protagoras 'perception' to fit within his own complex epistemology

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Bodas De Sangre

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G W.

Born in 17 into a Virginia planter family, he learned the morals, manners, and body of knowledge requisite for an 18th century Virginia gentleman. When the new Constitution was ratified, the Electoral College unanimously elected Washington President.

Daniel Shays (1747?-185, born Hopkinton, MA), a former Revolutionary Army captain, led a rebellion by farmers against unsettled economic conditions and against politicians and laws which were grossly unfair to farmers and working people in general.

Von Steuben was born in Magdeburg fortress where his father was an engineer lieutenant in the military in 170. Most of his adolescent years were spent in Russia, but with his father at the age of 10, they returned to Germany. He was schooled in Breslau by Jesuits and by the age of 17...was a Prussian officer in the military. He was a member of an infantry unit and a staff officer in the Seven Years War, later being made a member of the General Staff serving in Russia periodically. His service was commendable enough that he was eventually given assignment with Frederick the Greats headquarters.

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the nine articles that embodied the treaty established U.S. boundaries, specified certain fishing rights, allowed creditors of each country to be paid by citizens of the other, restored the rights and property of Loyalists, opened up the Mississippi River to citizens of both nations and provided for evacuation of all British forces.

female literacy rose to about 0% by 1850. (They couldnt go to college or train for professions.)

They could write and publish (on political topics related to domesticity)--but not speak in public, or even appear in public alone. They risked being seen as loose.

They couldnt vote or run for office. Their citizenship was covered by their mens.

The primogeniture Law was that the first born MALE would inherit all.

With independence declared, it was necessary for the states to form some type of central authority. Sentiment for a strong government was not great; the states were then involved in a life-and-death struggle with an egregiously powerful central authority, King George III.

Alexander Hamilton was born in 1757 on the island of Nevis, he was the illegitimate son of a common-law marriage between a poor itinerant Scottish merchant of aristocratic descent and an English-French Huguenot mother who was a planters daughter

Born in 1751, Madison was brought up in Orange County, Virginia, and attended Princeton (then called the College of New Jersey). A student of history and government, well-read in law, he participated in the framing of the Virginia Constitution in 1776, served in the Continental Congress, and was a leader in the Virginia Assembly.

The Virginia Plan describes houses one with members elected by the people for -year terms and the other composed of older leaders elected by the state legislatures for 7-year terms. Both would use population as a basis for dividing seats among the states.

The plan once again offered the idea of a unicameral (one house) legislature in which all states would have an equal number of votes.

Roger Sherman addressed the nettlesome issues of representation and slavery by offering what came to be known as the Connecticut Compromise (or Great Compromise). It provided

• The upper house (Senate) would have equal representation and be elected by the lower house

• The lower house (House of Representatives) would be subject to proportional representation

When comparing and contrasting Anti-Federalist views on the ratification of the United States Constitution with those of the Federalists, one must also consider the inherent relationship that represents their respective views upon principles, problems and solutions

A major battle of the Revolutionary War, fought in 1777 in northern New York state. Benedict Arnold, who had not yet turned traitor, was a leader of the American offensive, which forced the surrender of British troops under General John Burgoyne. The Battle of Saratoga is often called the turning point of the war, because it increased the confidence of the French government in the American forces; France began sending aid the next year.

Forcible enrollment of recruits for military duty. Before the establishment of conscription, many countries supplemented their militia and mercenary troops by impressment.

The Conventions of a number of the States having, at the time of adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution;

For the better security of the peace and friendship now entered into by the contracting parties, against all infractions of the same, by the citizens of either party, to the prejudice of the other, neither party shall proceed to the infliction of punishments on the citizens of the other, otherwise than by securing the offender, or offenders, by imprisonment, or any other competent means, till a fair and impartial trial can be had by judges or juries of both parties, as near as can be, to the laws, customs, and usages of the contracting parties, and natural justice the mode of such trials to be hereafter fixed by the wise men of the United States, in congress assembled, with the assistance of such deputies of the Delaware nation, as may be appointed to act in concert with them in adjusting this matter to their mutual liking

The issue seems to have first revealed itself in the presidential appointment powers discussed in the first congress, the first real battle about it came with the National Bank proposal of Hamiltons. A loose interpretation was urged by Hamilton, while Madison wished to stay within the confines of delegated powers.

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Japanese Economy.

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How has Japan fared with it's economies booms and slumps? This investigation is based on stage 4 unit 1 of the Business and Economics A-level course, "What happens in booms and slumps?". The unit focuses how people and businesses are affected by booms and slumps, why they continuously appear and the governments role in helping to control these two events. The investigation will therefore focus on Japan and the way booms and slumps affect the Japanese businesses and people. To determine this the investigation will focus on Japanese economic growth, inflation, unemployment rates, trade and Government economic policies. It is true that in a boom there are large amounts of trade. High demand, high GDP, low unemployment and high inflation (more spending). In a slump the opposite is true. ŸRecession - High Unemployment, low wages, low demand ŸHigh Inflation - More spending, higher demand, higher prices, higher costs of production. ŸLow Inflation - Less spending, low demand, low costs of production. ŸDownward Multiplier Effect - This occurs when there is too much demand. Then when there is a slump a deficit occurs because of the surplus that might have occurred in the boom. It is difficult to begin to analyse the Japanese economy since the information about it is very mixed. On one hand we have the news that Japan is coming out of a recession and in the other that Japan is going into one. The information released by the government assures us that Japan is improving its economic stability, while the media and world banks tell the opposite story.The Bank Of Japan is looking to ease its monetary policy (control of interest rates to control bank lending) and to fight the deflation by creating inflation. While on the other side we are being told that the unemployment rate is easing from an unprecedented 5.0% to 4.5%. So which one is true. It is true that Japanese economy has improved, it has come out of it's recession but it still faces several problems that may keep it from expanding, these are ŸConsumer demand is still weak - Between the years 18 and 18 household savings have decreased from 7.6% to 7.1 per cent. This means people have started spending more but still in low quantities. ŸUnemployment in Japan is at around 4.%. - Although temporary workers and one day contract workers have increased full time employees have been laid off more. ŸCorporations continue to restructure themselves. - The Japanese are adopting a more American industry. The relationship between workers and employers and the management is changing. This change is also a factor to the improvement of the economy. So what exactly pulled Japan out of its recession. One of the major factors is the low interest rate (montary policy) that encouraged people to save less and spend more thereby creating demand. By creating demand they initiated the circular flow of income. What this means is that households had more money which they spent on products and because there was demand once again the factories started producing, this led to the need for workers and the workers were paid wages which could then be spent. The other reason is major Government intervention, through fiscal policy. Although this large spending by the government to create aggregate demand to keep the economy alive worked, it has increased the countries national debt which has to be paid off and not only that but this active implementation of fiscal policy has created a fiscal deficit. So far the damage created by the fiscal deficit has been non-existent but because of the increased debt public spending may later become strained especially if interest rates increase and people stop spending money once again. Then where will the government get the money from. This fiscal policy can serve also as a mask over the economy because it is hard to estimate in how much trouble it really is if artificial demand is created. The government has spent $1 trillion US on their "stimulus" budget and $500 billion to help sustain their banking system. Apart from the government intervention the recession has caused the Japanese to rethink their whole management structure. This now means instead of the rest of Europe trying to model themselves on Japan, Japan has started to model itself on the Western way of running a company. More specifically the American way. One of these tactics is restructuring where the "social contract" between companies and their employees has been revamped. So out goes the loyalty and hard work from the workers and the employers no longer offer life long jobs. This in turn has the effect on households to rethink their financing. Because jobs are easier to gain or loose money is much more carefully managed. The effect is drastic, even peoples holiday locations and benefits are affected by this change. Like with most economies it was true with Japan when they went into their recession their imports became low and their exports increased. This is because of the recession it became cheaper for other countries to purchase from Japan and it became more expensive for Japan to purchase from abroad, the yen was very weak. Now that they are breaking out of their recession their trade, their imports and exports have increased (although it is more common for exports to decrease) with Asia. They are trading far more in IT equipment which may prove to be their saviour, their trade with China has also increased in textiles products. Japan took some very strong and drastic spending to recover its economy which has caused them a fiscal deficit, The Government has relied far too heavily on their fiscal policy which helped them out now but what about later. And although they did use monetary policy (lowering interest rates) to increase spending it had little effect. Their companies are going through a major "reconstruction" which will affect their "fixed expenses" and affect the unemployment for the worse in the short term. In Japans case government intervention has had a positive effect and without it the economy would have certainly gone in a major slump but in the end the government is not powerful enough to sustain the economy by itself, it needs help. This help should come in the form of the businesses that make up the economy. It is a good thing that the Japanese firms are looking outside of what they know because it can only lead to improvement. A mixed economy is a right economy.

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