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Analysis of Police Corruption

Police corruption is a complex phenomenon, which does not

readily submit to simple analysis. It is a problem that has and will

Custom Essays on Annalysis of police corruption

continue to affect us all, whether we are civilians or law enforcement

officers. Since its beginnings, may aspects of policing have changed;

however, one aspect that has remained relatively unchanged is the

existence of corruption. An examination of a local newspaper or any

police-related publication on any given day will have an article about

a police officer that got busted committing some kind of corrupt act.

Police corruption has increased dramatically with the illegal cocaine

trade, with officers acting alone or in-groups to steal money from

dealers or distribute cocaine themselves. Large groups of corrupt

police have been caught in New York, New Orleans, Washington, DC, and

Los Angeles.

Methodology Corruption within police departments falls into

basic categories, which are external corruption and internal

corruption. In this report I will concentrate only on external

corruption because it has been the larger center of attention

recently. I have decided to include the fairly recent accounts of

corruption from a few major cities, mainly New York, because that is

where I have lived for the past years. I compiled my information

from numerous articles written in the New York Times over the last 5

years. My definitional infornmation and background data came from

various books cited that have been written on the issue of police

corruption. Those books helped me create a basis of just what the

different types of corruption and deviances are, as well as how and

why corruption happens. The books were filled with useful insite but

were not update enough, so I relied on the newspaper articles to

provide me with the current, and regional information that was needed

to complete this report. In simple terms, corruption in policing is

usually viewed as the misuse of authority by a police officer acting

offically to fulfill personal needs or wants. For a corrupt act to

occure, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present

simultaneously 1) missuse of authority, ) missuse of official

capacity, and ) missuse of personal attainment. (Dantzker, 15 p

157) It can be said that power inevitably tends to corrupt, and it is

yet to be recongnized that, while there is no reason to suppose that

policemen as individuals are any less fallible than other members of

society, people are often shocked and outraged when policemen are

exposed violating the law. The reason is simple. There diviance

elicits a special feeling of betrayal. Most studies support the view

that corruption is endemic, if not universal, in police departments.

The danger of corruption for police, and this is that it may invert

the formal goals of the organization and may lead to the use of

organizational power to encourage and create crime rather than to

deter it (Sherman 178 p 1) General police deviance can include

brutality, discrimination, sexual harassment, intimidation, and

illicit use of weapons. However it is not particularly obvious where

brutality, discrimination, and misconduct end and corruption begin.

Essentially, police corruption falls into two major categories--

external corruption which concerns police contacts with the public,

and internal corruption, which involves the relationships among

policemen within the works of the police department. The external

corruption generally concists of one ore more of the following

activities 1) Payoffs to police by essentially non-criminal elements

who fail to comply with stringent statutes or city ordinances; (for

example, inviduals who repeatedly violate traffic laws). ) Payoffs to

police by individuals who continually violate the law as a method of

making money (for example, prostitutes, narcotics addicts and

pusshers, & professional burglars). ) Clean Graft where money is

paid to police for services, or where courtesy discounts are given as

a matter of course to the police. Police officers have been involved

in activities such as extortion of money and/or narcotics from

narcotics viloators in order to aviod arrest; they have accepted

bribes; they have sold narcotics. They have known of narcotics

vilolations and have failed to take proper enforcement action. They

have entered into personal associations with narcotics criminals and

in some cases have used narcotics. They have given false testimony in

court in order to obtain dismissal of the charges against a

defendant. (Sherman 178 p 1) A scandal is perceived both as a

socially constructed phenomenon and as an agent of change that can

lead to realignments in the structure of power within oraganizations.

New york, for instance, has had more than a half dozen major scandals

concerning its police department within a century. It was the Knapp

Commission in 17 that first brought attention to the NYPD when they

released the results of over years of investigations of alleged

corruption. The findings were that bribery, especially amoung

narcotics officers, was extremely high. As a result many officers were

prosecuted and many more lost their jobs. A massive re-structuring

took place aftewards with strict rules and regulations to make sure

that the problem would never happen again. Be that as it may, the

problem did arrise once gain... Some of the most recent events to

shake New York City and bring attention to the national problem of

police corruption was brought up begining in 1 when five officers

were arrested on drug-trafficing charges.

Michael Dowd, the suspected ring leader, was the kind of cop

who gave new meaning to the word moonlighting. It wasnt just any job

that the 10-year veteran of the New York City force was working on the

side. Dowd was a drug dealer. From scoring free pizza as a rookie he

graduated to pocketing cash seized in drug raids and from there simply

to robbing dealers outright, sometimes also relieving them of drugs

that he would resell. Soon he had formed ''a crew of 15 to 0

officers in his Brooklyn precinct who hit up dealers regularly.

Eventually one of them was paying Dowd and another officer $8,000 a

week in protection money. Dowd bought four suburban homes and a

$5,000 red Corvette. Nobody asked how he managed all that on

take-home pay of $400 a week. In May 1 Dowd, four other officers

and one former officer were arrested for drug trafficking by police in

Long Islands Suffolk County. When the arrests hit the papers, it was

forehead-slapping time among police brass. Not only had some of their

cops become robbers, but the crimes had to be uncovered by a suburban

police force. Politicians and the media started asking what had

happened to the system for rooting out police corruption established

1 years ago at the urging of the Knapp Commission, the investigatory

body that heard Officer Frank Serpico and other police describe a

citywide network of rogue cops. (New York Times, March , 1 p 8)

To find out, at the time, New York City mayor David Dinkins

established the Mollen Commission, named for its chairman, Milton

Mollen, a former New York judge. Last week, in the same Manhattan

hearing room where the Knapp Commission once sat, the new body heard

Dowd and other officers add another lurid chapter to the old story of

police corruption. And with many American cities wary that drug money

will turn their departments bad, police brass around the country were

lending an uneasy ear to the tales of officers sharing lines of coke

from the dashboard of their squad cars and scuttling down fire escapes

with sacks full of cash stolen from dealers apartments. (New York

Times, April , 1 p. 5) The Mollen Commission has not uncovered a

citywide system of payoffs among the 0,000-member force. In fact,

last weeks testimony focused on three precincts, all in heavy crime

areas. But the tales, nevertheless, were troubling. Dowd described how

virtually the entire precinct patrol force would rendezvous at times

at an inlet on Jamaica Bay, where they would drink, shoot off guns in

the air and plan their illegal drug raids. (New York Times, Nov. 17,

1 p. ) It was victimless crimes problem which many view was a

prime cause in the growth of police abuse. Reports have shown that the

large majority of corrupt acts by police involve payoffs from both the

perpetrators and the victims of victimless crimes. The knapp

commission in the New York found that although corruption among police

officers was not restricted to this area, the bulk of it involved

payments of money to the police from gamblers and prostitutes. (Knapp

Commission Report, 17 pp 1-) ''The cops who were engaged in

corruption 0 years ago took money to cover up the criminal activity

of others, says Michael Armstrong, who was chief counsel to the

Knapp Commission. '' Now it seems cops have gone into competition with

street criminals. (Newsweek, Oct 1,1 p. 18) For cops as for

anyone else, money works age for crooked police. Gambling syndicates

in the 150s were protected by a payoff system more elaborate than the

Internal Revenue Service. Pervasive corruption may have lessened in

recent years, as many experts believe, but individual examples seem to

have grown more outrageous. In March authorities in Atlanta broke up a

ring of weight-lifting officers who were charged with robbing strip

clubs and private homes, and even carrying off 450-lb. safes from

retail stores. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) The deluge of

cash that has flowed from the drug trade has created opportunities for

quick dirty money on a scale never seen before. In the 180s

Philadelphia saw more than 0 officers convicted of taking part in a

scheme to extort money from dealers. In Los Angeles an FBI probe

focusing on the L.A. County sheriffs department has resulted so far

in 6 indictments and 1 convictions on charges related to enormous

thefts of cash during drug raids -- more than $1 million in one

instance. ''The deputies were pursuing the money more aggressively

than they were pursuing drugs, says Assistant U.S. Attorney Steven

Bauer. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) When cities enlarge

their police forces quickly in response to public fears about crime,

it can also mean an influx of younger and less well-suited officers.

That was a major reason for the enormous corruption scandal that hit

Miami in the mid-180s, when about 10% of the citys police were

either jailed, fired or disciplined in connection with a scheme in

which officers robbed and sometimes killed cocaine smugglers on the

Miami River, then resold the drugs. Many of those involved had been

hired when the department had beefed up quickly after the 180 riots

and the Mariel boatlift. ''We didnt get the quality of officers we

should have, says department spokesman Dave Magnusson. (Carter,

18 pp. 78-7) When it came time to clean house, says former Miami

police chief Perry Anderson, civil service board members often chose

to protect corrupt cops if there was no hard evidence to convict them

in the courts. ''I tried to fire 5 people with tarnished badges, but

it was next to impossible, he recalls. (Carter, 18 pp. 78-7)

The Mollen Commission testimony could also lead to second

thoughts on the growth of community policing, the back-to-the-beat

philosophy that in recent years has been returning officers to

neighborhood patrol in cities around the country, including New York.

Getting to know the neighborhood can mean finding more occasions for

bribe taking, which is one reason that in many places beat patrolling

was scaled back since the 160s in favor of more isolated squad-car

teams. The real test of a department is not so much whether its

officers are tempted by money but whether there is an institutional

culture that discourages them from succumbing. In Los Angeles the

sheriffs department ''brought us the case, says FBI special agent

Charlie Parsons. ''They worked with us hand in glove throughout the

investigation. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) In the years

after it was established, following the Knapp Commission disclosures,

the New York City police departments internal affairs division was

considered one of the nations most effective in stalking corruption.

But that may not be the case anymore. Police sergeant Joseph Trimboli,

a department investigator, told the Mollen Commission that when he

tried to root out Dowd and other corrupt cops, his efforts were

blocked by higher-ups in the department. At one point, Trimboli

claimed, he was called to a meeting of police officials and told he

was under suspicion as a drug trafficker. ''They did not want this

investigation to exist, he said. (New York Times, April , 1 p.

5) It was at this time that New York City police commissioner, at the

time, Raymond Kelly announced a series of organizational changes,

including a larger staff and better-coordinated field investigations,

intended to improve internal affairs. His critics say those changes

dont go far enough. Much of that happened after Kellys reforms had

been announced. The Mollen Commission is recommend the establishment

of an outside monitoring agency, a move that Kelly and other police

brass have expressed some reservations about. ''No group is good at

policing itself, says Knapp Commission counsel Armstrong. ''It

doesnt hurt to have somebody looking over their shoulder. An

independent body, however, might be less effective at getting

co-operation from cops prone to close ranks against outsiders. ''You

have to have the confidence of officers and information about whats

going on internally, says former U.S. Attorney Thomas Puccio, who

prosecuted a number of police-corruption cases. (New York Times, April

, 1 p. 5) Getting that information was no easier when officers

were encouraged to report wrongdoing to authorities within their own

department. In many cities that have them, internal affairs divisions

are resented within the ranks for getting cops to turn in other cops

-- informers are even recruited from police-academy cadets -- and for

rarely targeting the brass. ''One of the things that has come out in

the hearings is a culture within the department which seems to permit

corruption to exist, says Walter Mack, a one time federal prosecutor

who is now New Yorks deputy commissioner of internal affairs. ''But

when youre talking about cultural change, youre talking about many

years. Its not something that occurs overnight. (New York Post,

June 14, 1 p. 8) Dowd, who was sentenced prison on guilty please,

put it another way. ''Cops dont want to turn in other cops, he

said. ''Cops dont want to be a rat. And even when honest cops are

willing to blow the whistle, there may not be anyone willing to

listen. (New York Times, Mar. , 1 p. 14) Is there a solution to

the police corruption problem? Probably not because since its

beginings, many aspects of policing have changed, but one thing that

has not is the existence of corruption. Police agenies, in an attempt

to elminate corruption have tried everything from increasing salaries,

requiring more training and education, and developing polices which

are intended to focus directly on factors leading to corruption. What

have all these changes done to eliminate or even decrease the

corruption problem? Little or nothing. Despite police departments

attempts to control corruption, it still occurs. Regardless of the

fact, police corruption cannot simply be over looked. Controling

corruption is the only way that we can really limit corruption,

because corruption is the by-product of the individual police officer,

societal views, and, police environmental factors. Therefore control

must come from not only the police department, but also must require

the assistance and support of the community members. Controling

corruption from the departmental level requires a strong leadership

organization, because corruption can take place any where from the

patrol officer to the chief. The top administrator must make it clear

from the start that he and the other members of the department are

against any form of corrupt activity, and that it will not be

tollerated in any way, shape, or form. If a police administrator does

not act strongly with disciplinary action against any corrupt

activity, the message conveyed to other officers within the department

will not be that of intimated nature. In addition it may even increase

corruption, because officers feel no actions will be taken against

them. Another way that police agencies can control its corruption

problem starts orginally in the academy. Ethical decisions and

behavior should be promoted, because failing to do make officers aware

of the consequences of corruption does nothing but encourages it.

Finally, many police departments, especially large ones, have an

Internal Affairs unit which operates to investigate improper conduct

of police departments. These units some times are run within the

department or can be a total outside agency to insure that there is

not corruption from within the Internal Affairs unit, as was alleged

in the 1 NYPD corruption scandal. Such a unit may be all that is

need to prevent many officers from being tempted into falling for

corrupt behavior patterns. Although the police agaency should be the

main source of controling its own corruption problem, there also

requires some support and assistance from the local community. It is

important that the public be educated to the negative affects of

corruption on their police agency. They should be taught that even

graitudes (the most basic and common form of police corruption) is

only a catalyst for more and future corruption. The community may even

go as far as establishing review boards, and investigative bodies to

help keep a careful eye on the agency. If we do not act to try and

control it, the costs can be enormous, because it affects not only the

individual, his department, the law enforcement community as a whole,

but society as well. Police corruption can be controlled; it just

takes a little extra effort. And In the long run, that effort will be

well worth it to both the agency and the community. (Walker, 1 p.

8)

The powers given by the state to the police to use force have

always caused concern. Although improvements have been made to control

corruption, numerous opportunities exist for deviant and corrupt

practices. The opportunity to aquire power in excess of that which is

legally permitted or to misuse power is always available. The police

subculture is a contributing factor to these practices, because

officers who often act in a corrupt manner are often over looked, and

condoned by other members of the subculture. As mentioned from the

very begining of this report the problem of police deviance and

corruption will never be completely solved, just as the police will

never be able to solve the crime problem in our society. One step in

the right direction, however, is the monitoring and control of the

police and the appropriate use of police style to enforce laws and to

provide service to the public.

Analysis of Police Corruption

Police corruption is a complex phenomenon, which does not

readily submit to simple analysis. It is a problem that has and will

continue to affect us all, whether we are civilians or law enforcement

officers. Since its beginnings, may aspects of policing have changed;

however, one aspect that has remained relatively unchanged is the

existence of corruption. An examination of a local newspaper or any

police-related publication on any given day will have an article about

a police officer that got busted committing some kind of corrupt act.

Police corruption has increased dramatically with the illegal cocaine

trade, with officers acting alone or in-groups to steal money from

dealers or distribute cocaine themselves. Large groups of corrupt

police have been caught in New York, New Orleans, Washington, DC, and

Los Angeles.

Methodology Corruption within police departments falls into

basic categories, which are external corruption and internal

corruption. In this report I will concentrate only on external

corruption because it has been the larger center of attention

recently. I have decided to include the fairly recent accounts of

corruption from a few major cities, mainly New York, because that is

where I have lived for the past years. I compiled my information

from numerous articles written in the New York Times over the last 5

years. My definitional infornmation and background data came from

various books cited that have been written on the issue of police

corruption. Those books helped me create a basis of just what the

different types of corruption and deviances are, as well as how and

why corruption happens. The books were filled with useful insite but

were not update enough, so I relied on the newspaper articles to

provide me with the current, and regional information that was needed

to complete this report. In simple terms, corruption in policing is

usually viewed as the misuse of authority by a police officer acting

offically to fulfill personal needs or wants. For a corrupt act to

occure, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present

simultaneously 1) missuse of authority, ) missuse of official

capacity, and ) missuse of personal attainment. (Dantzker, 15 p

157) It can be said that power inevitably tends to corrupt, and it is

yet to be recongnized that, while there is no reason to suppose that

policemen as individuals are any less fallible than other members of

society, people are often shocked and outraged when policemen are

exposed violating the law. The reason is simple. There diviance

elicits a special feeling of betrayal. Most studies support the view

that corruption is endemic, if not universal, in police departments.

The danger of corruption for police, and this is that it may invert

the formal goals of the organization and may lead to the use of

organizational power to encourage and create crime rather than to

deter it (Sherman 178 p 1) General police deviance can include

brutality, discrimination, sexual harassment, intimidation, and

illicit use of weapons. However it is not particularly obvious where

brutality, discrimination, and misconduct end and corruption begin.

Essentially, police corruption falls into two major categories--

external corruption which concerns police contacts with the public,

and internal corruption, which involves the relationships among

policemen within the works of the police department. The external

corruption generally concists of one ore more of the following

activities 1) Payoffs to police by essentially non-criminal elements

who fail to comply with stringent statutes or city ordinances; (for

example, inviduals who repeatedly violate traffic laws). ) Payoffs to

police by individuals who continually violate the law as a method of

making money (for example, prostitutes, narcotics addicts and

pusshers, & professional burglars). ) Clean Graft where money is

paid to police for services, or where courtesy discounts are given as

a matter of course to the police. Police officers have been involved

in activities such as extortion of money and/or narcotics from

narcotics viloators in order to aviod arrest; they have accepted

bribes; they have sold narcotics. They have known of narcotics

vilolations and have failed to take proper enforcement action. They

have entered into personal associations with narcotics criminals and

in some cases have used narcotics. They have given false testimony in

court in order to obtain dismissal of the charges against a

defendant. (Sherman 178 p 1) A scandal is perceived both as a

socially constructed phenomenon and as an agent of change that can

lead to realignments in the structure of power within oraganizations.

New york, for instance, has had more than a half dozen major scandals

concerning its police department within a century. It was the Knapp

Commission in 17 that first brought attention to the NYPD when they

released the results of over years of investigations of alleged

corruption. The findings were that bribery, especially amoung

narcotics officers, was extremely high. As a result many officers were

prosecuted and many more lost their jobs. A massive re-structuring

took place aftewards with strict rules and regulations to make sure

that the problem would never happen again. Be that as it may, the

problem did arrise once gain... Some of the most recent events to

shake New York City and bring attention to the national problem of

police corruption was brought up begining in 1 when five officers

were arrested on drug-trafficing charges.

Michael Dowd, the suspected ring leader, was the kind of cop

who gave new meaning to the word moonlighting. It wasnt just any job

that the 10-year veteran of the New York City force was working on the

side. Dowd was a drug dealer. From scoring free pizza as a rookie he

graduated to pocketing cash seized in drug raids and from there simply

to robbing dealers outright, sometimes also relieving them of drugs

that he would resell. Soon he had formed ''a crew of 15 to 0

officers in his Brooklyn precinct who hit up dealers regularly.

Eventually one of them was paying Dowd and another officer $8,000 a

week in protection money. Dowd bought four suburban homes and a

$5,000 red Corvette. Nobody asked how he managed all that on

take-home pay of $400 a week. In May 1 Dowd, four other officers

and one former officer were arrested for drug trafficking by police in

Long Islands Suffolk County. When the arrests hit the papers, it was

forehead-slapping time among police brass. Not only had some of their

cops become robbers, but the crimes had to be uncovered by a suburban

police force. Politicians and the media started asking what had

happened to the system for rooting out police corruption established

1 years ago at the urging of the Knapp Commission, the investigatory

body that heard Officer Frank Serpico and other police describe a

citywide network of rogue cops. (New York Times, March , 1 p 8)

To find out, at the time, New York City mayor David Dinkins

established the Mollen Commission, named for its chairman, Milton

Mollen, a former New York judge. Last week, in the same Manhattan

hearing room where the Knapp Commission once sat, the new body heard

Dowd and other officers add another lurid chapter to the old story of

police corruption. And with many American cities wary that drug money

will turn their departments bad, police brass around the country were

lending an uneasy ear to the tales of officers sharing lines of coke

from the dashboard of their squad cars and scuttling down fire escapes

with sacks full of cash stolen from dealers apartments. (New York

Times, April , 1 p. 5) The Mollen Commission has not uncovered a

citywide system of payoffs among the 0,000-member force. In fact,

last weeks testimony focused on three precincts, all in heavy crime

areas. But the tales, nevertheless, were troubling. Dowd described how

virtually the entire precinct patrol force would rendezvous at times

at an inlet on Jamaica Bay, where they would drink, shoot off guns in

the air and plan their illegal drug raids. (New York Times, Nov. 17,

1 p. ) It was victimless crimes problem which many view was a

prime cause in the growth of police abuse. Reports have shown that the

large majority of corrupt acts by police involve payoffs from both the

perpetrators and the victims of victimless crimes. The knapp

commission in the New York found that although corruption among police

officers was not restricted to this area, the bulk of it involved

payments of money to the police from gamblers and prostitutes. (Knapp

Commission Report, 17 pp 1-) ''The cops who were engaged in

corruption 0 years ago took money to cover up the criminal activity

of others, says Michael Armstrong, who was chief counsel to the

Knapp Commission. '' Now it seems cops have gone into competition with

street criminals. (Newsweek, Oct 1,1 p. 18) For cops as for

anyone else, money works age for crooked police. Gambling syndicates

in the 150s were protected by a payoff system more elaborate than the

Internal Revenue Service. Pervasive corruption may have lessened in

recent years, as many experts believe, but individual examples seem to

have grown more outrageous. In March authorities in Atlanta broke up a

ring of weight-lifting officers who were charged with robbing strip

clubs and private homes, and even carrying off 450-lb. safes from

retail stores. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) The deluge of

cash that has flowed from the drug trade has created opportunities for

quick dirty money on a scale never seen before. In the 180s

Philadelphia saw more than 0 officers convicted of taking part in a

scheme to extort money from dealers. In Los Angeles an FBI probe

focusing on the L.A. County sheriffs department has resulted so far

in 6 indictments and 1 convictions on charges related to enormous

thefts of cash during drug raids -- more than $1 million in one

instance. ''The deputies were pursuing the money more aggressively

than they were pursuing drugs, says Assistant U.S. Attorney Steven

Bauer. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) When cities enlarge

their police forces quickly in response to public fears about crime,

it can also mean an influx of younger and less well-suited officers.

That was a major reason for the enormous corruption scandal that hit

Miami in the mid-180s, when about 10% of the citys police were

either jailed, fired or disciplined in connection with a scheme in

which officers robbed and sometimes killed cocaine smugglers on the

Miami River, then resold the drugs. Many of those involved had been

hired when the department had beefed up quickly after the 180 riots

and the Mariel boatlift. ''We didnt get the quality of officers we

should have, says department spokesman Dave Magnusson. (Carter,

18 pp. 78-7) When it came time to clean house, says former Miami

police chief Perry Anderson, civil service board members often chose

to protect corrupt cops if there was no hard evidence to convict them

in the courts. ''I tried to fire 5 people with tarnished badges, but

it was next to impossible, he recalls. (Carter, 18 pp. 78-7)

The Mollen Commission testimony could also lead to second

thoughts on the growth of community policing, the back-to-the-beat

philosophy that in recent years has been returning officers to

neighborhood patrol in cities around the country, including New York.

Getting to know the neighborhood can mean finding more occasions for

bribe taking, which is one reason that in many places beat patrolling

was scaled back since the 160s in favor of more isolated squad-car

teams. The real test of a department is not so much whether its

officers are tempted by money but whether there is an institutional

culture that discourages them from succumbing. In Los Angeles the

sheriffs department ''brought us the case, says FBI special agent

Charlie Parsons. ''They worked with us hand in glove throughout the

investigation. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) In the years

after it was established, following the Knapp Commission disclosures,

the New York City police departments internal affairs division was

considered one of the nations most effective in stalking corruption.

But that may not be the case anymore. Police sergeant Joseph Trimboli,

a department investigator, told the Mollen Commission that when he

tried to root out Dowd and other corrupt cops, his efforts were

blocked by higher-ups in the department. At one point, Trimboli

claimed, he was called to a meeting of police officials and told he

was under suspicion as a drug trafficker. ''They did not want this

investigation to exist, he said. (New York Times, April , 1 p.

5) It was at this time that New York City police commissioner, at the

time, Raymond Kelly announced a series of organizational changes,

including a larger staff and better-coordinated field investigations,

intended to improve internal affairs. His critics say those changes

dont go far enough. Much of that happened after Kellys reforms had

been announced. The Mollen Commission is recommend the establishment

of an outside monitoring agency, a move that Kelly and other police

brass have expressed some reservations about. ''No group is good at

policing itself, says Knapp Commission counsel Armstrong. ''It

doesnt hurt to have somebody looking over their shoulder. An

independent body, however, might be less effective at getting

co-operation from cops prone to close ranks against outsiders. ''You

have to have the confidence of officers and information about whats

going on internally, says former U.S. Attorney Thomas Puccio, who

prosecuted a number of police-corruption cases. (New York Times, April

, 1 p. 5) Getting that information was no easier when officers

were encouraged to report wrongdoing to authorities within their own

department. In many cities that have them, internal affairs divisions

are resented within the ranks for getting cops to turn in other cops

-- informers are even recruited from police-academy cadets -- and for

rarely targeting the brass. ''One of the things that has come out in

the hearings is a culture within the department which seems to permit

corruption to exist, says Walter Mack, a one time federal prosecutor

who is now New Yorks deputy commissioner of internal affairs. ''But

when youre talking about cultural change, youre talking about many

years. Its not something that occurs overnight. (New York Post,

June 14, 1 p. 8) Dowd, who was sentenced prison on guilty please,

put it another way. ''Cops dont want to turn in other cops, he

said. ''Cops dont want to be a rat. And even when honest cops are

willing to blow the whistle, there may not be anyone willing to

listen. (New York Times, Mar. , 1 p. 14) Is there a solution to

the police corruption problem? Probably not because since its

beginings, many aspects of policing have changed, but one thing that

has not is the existence of corruption. Police agenies, in an attempt

to elminate corruption have tried everything from increasing salaries,

requiring more training and education, and developing polices which

are intended to focus directly on factors leading to corruption. What

have all these changes done to eliminate or even decrease the

corruption problem? Little or nothing. Despite police departments

attempts to control corruption, it still occurs. Regardless of the

fact, police corruption cannot simply be over looked. Controling

corruption is the only way that we can really limit corruption,

because corruption is the by-product of the individual police officer,

societal views, and, police environmental factors. Therefore control

must come from not only the police department, but also must require

the assistance and support of the community members. Controling

corruption from the departmental level requires a strong leadership

organization, because corruption can take place any where from the

patrol officer to the chief. The top administrator must make it clear

from the start that he and the other members of the department are

against any form of corrupt activity, and that it will not be

tollerated in any way, shape, or form. If a police administrator does

not act strongly with disciplinary action against any corrupt

activity, the message conveyed to other officers within the department

will not be that of intimated nature. In addition it may even increase

corruption, because officers feel no actions will be taken against

them. Another way that police agencies can control its corruption

problem starts orginally in the academy. Ethical decisions and

behavior should be promoted, because failing to do make officers aware

of the consequences of corruption does nothing but encourages it.

Finally, many police departments, especially large ones, have an

Internal Affairs unit which operates to investigate improper conduct

of police departments. These units some times are run within the

department or can be a total outside agency to insure that there is

not corruption from within the Internal Affairs unit, as was alleged

in the 1 NYPD corruption scandal. Such a unit may be all that is

need to prevent many officers from being tempted into falling for

corrupt behavior patterns. Although the police agaency should be the

main source of controling its own corruption problem, there also

requires some support and assistance from the local community. It is

important that the public be educated to the negative affects of

corruption on their police agency. They should be taught that even

graitudes (the most basic and common form of police corruption) is

only a catalyst for more and future corruption. The community may even

go as far as establishing review boards, and investigative bodies to

help keep a careful eye on the agency. If we do not act to try and

control it, the costs can be enormous, because it affects not only the

individual, his department, the law enforcement community as a whole,

but society as well. Police corruption can be controlled; it just

takes a little extra effort. And In the long run, that effort will be

well worth it to both the agency and the community. (Walker, 1 p.

8)

The powers given by the state to the police to use force have

always caused concern. Although improvements have been made to control

corruption, numerous opportunities exist for deviant and corrupt

practices. The opportunity to aquire power in excess of that which is

legally permitted or to misuse power is always available. The police

subculture is a contributing factor to these practices, because

officers who often act in a corrupt manner are often over looked, and

condoned by other members of the subculture. As mentioned from the

very begining of this report the problem of police deviance and

corruption will never be completely solved, just as the police will

never be able to solve the crime problem in our society. One step in

the right direction, however, is the monitoring and control of the

police and the appropriate use of police style to enforce laws and to

provide service to the public.

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Design Model for OZZICOM enterprise network security.

Since OZZICOM is a big company, that means it has a huge number of operations and accesses by users. These operations and processes needs a secure network. Here are some suggestions that could be included in designing a model for OZZICOM enterprise network security.

Network Assessment and Optimisation

Cheap Custom Essays on Network design

Leverages deep expertise and a wide range of assessment tools to analyze network operations and provide recommendations for improving performance and mitigating risk.

Disaster Recovery and Business Continuance

Develops a disaster recovery plan to help prevent costly disruptions to a network and to normalize operations as quickly as possible in the event of a system failure.

IP Address and Design Implementation and Management

Develops an IP address schema for sustained growth and efficient use of IP addresses. Provides a set of proven policies, procedures, guidelines, and tools for managing public and private address space for midsize and large enterprises.

Application Network Review

Helps ensure application production readiness, verifies bandwidth requirements, and identifies application bottlenecks.

Directory Services Infrastructure

Designs and implements a directory services infrastructure that delivers a high level of accuracy and security, and minimizes administrative tasks and costs.

DNS Infrastructure Architecture and Design

Designs a robust Domain Name System (DNS) architecture to support Internet and intranet name resolution.

Capacity Planning and Optimisation

Establishes a baseline for an existing enterprises infrastructure and performs a gap analysis to pinpoint differences between the current infrastructure and identified requirements for projected growth.

Traffic Engineering and Quality of Service

Analyses and optimises network traffic based on network capacity and priorities for various types of network traffic

Security Assessment Quickly identifies immediate security concerns and network weaknesses, and then uses this information as the foundation for a comprehensive network review.

Penetration Testing Uses a multi-phased process of penetration testing and access attempts to assess the type and extent of security-related vulnerabilities that may exist in your current security system.

Security Policy Design Translates an enterprises existing security requirements into

a documented security standard to ensure that information assets are protected throughout the network.

Firewall Protection Safeguards entry to an enterprises network with a special security system that prevents external hackers from misusing Internet connections and dial-in lines.

Authentication Leverages extensive authentication methodologies to verify that electronic messages come from their stated sources.

Remote Access and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) Deploys and maintains the VPN to ensure that only authorized users can access the network. Uses sophisticated encryption technologies to encode data and prevent unintended recipients from capitalizing on it.

Intrusion Detection Utilizes advanced detection technology to scan for firewall holes and immediately detect and neutralize hacker attempts.

Virus and Malicious Code Protection Architects sophisticated protection mechanisms so that viruses and malicious codewhich can be disguised as benign data such as e-mailcannot penetrate your network.

Find possible security solution for the company discuss physical security and system security which includes (assigning responsibility ,network security disaster contingency plan ).also security awareness and compliance.

The OZZICOM company is a big company that is accessed by huge number of people via the internet. So securing this environment is a very important factor that concerns the company.

Lets start first by discussing the physical security solutions

1. Surveillance and detection by replacing video surveillance cameras…etc

. Alarm and sensors detectors

. Security guards

4. Developed locks such as finger print scanner or eye scanner.

Regarding the system security or in another word software security, these solutions are effective

As more and more businesses shift from dial-up to always-on broadband Internet connections, such as DSL and cable, their networks are becoming more and more vulnerable to Internet hackers. Here are some secuirty solutions

a) Email monitoring

a. Spot checks just are not enough anymore. The tide information system IS is turning towards systematic monitoring of corporate Email traffic using content monitoring software that scans for troublesome words that might compromise corporate security. The reason user of monitoring software said they are concerned about protecting their intellectual property and guarding themselves against litigation. Internet and other online Email systems are one of the favourite avenues of attack by hackers for spreading computer viruses or breaking into the network computers. Email is also the battleground for attempts by companies to enforce policies against illegal, personal or damaging messages by employees and there demands of some employees and others, who see such policies as violations or privacy rights.

The reasons for email monitoring are

ɨ Potential legal liability from information contained in Email

ɨ Potential leaking of corporate secrets

ɨ Use of email for racial or sexual harassment

ɨ Complying with official regulations

ɨ Personal and non business use of email

Email monitoring policy

ɨ A statement that computer systems are the companies property and are to be used for business purposes only.

ɨ A clear definition of what is and is not appropriate use of email

ɨ A statement of employees that they cannot expect email to be private and that all email will be monitored

ɨ An explanation that violations can lead to disciplinary action up to and including termination (introduction to IS)

b) Virus defences

Every pc has to be protected from the latest viruses, worms, trojan horses and other malicious programs like back orifice that can wreck havoc on pcs,

especially if the pc is periodically linked to the corporate network

The latest computer virus prevalence survey from ICSA Labs found that computer viruses cost companies in the United States and Europe an average of $81,000 in 00. And according to the Computer Security Institute, computer viruses generated a total cost of $4. million in the United States last year. The survey also determined that the monthly rate of computer virus infection in U.S. and European companies and organizations grew from 10 per 1,000 PCs in 16 to 105 per 1,000 PCs last year.

That's way many companies are spending lot of money in building defences against the spread of these viruses

Common ways that viruses spread

 email attachments

 shared files

 floppy disks

 Infected documents and infected word processors

c) Encryption Security

This software package is used to scramble date or convert it prior to

Transmission to a secret code that masks the meaning of the data to

Unauthorized recipients. There are two kinds of cryptosystems symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetric cryptosystems use the same key (the secret key) to encrypt and decrypt a message, and asymmetric cryptosystems use one key (the public key) to encrypt a message and a different key (the private key) to decrypt it. Asymmetric cryptosystems are also called public key cryptosystems.

Symmetric cryptosystems have a problem how do you transport the secret key from the sender to the recipient securely and in a tamperproof fashion? If you could send the secret key securely, then, in theory, you wouldnt need the symmetric cryptosystem in the first place -- because you would simply use that secure channel to send your message. Frequently, trusted couriers are used as a solution to this problem. Another, more efficient and reliable solution is a public key cryptosystem, such as RSA, which is used in the popular security tool

d) Firewall Computer security

There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router. This type of firewall utilizes a multi-homed machine and a set of rules to determine whether to forward or block individual packets. A multi-homed machine is simply a device with multiple network interfaces. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled.

Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms.

e) Password Security

Password protect your computer and restrict access to it with Security Administrator. It enables you to impose a variety of access restrictions to protect your privacy and stop others from tampering with your PC. You can deny access to Control Panel applets, disable boot keys, context menus, DOS windows, Registry editing, Internet and network access.

Also one of the awareness and compliance that the company may face is the copyright issue. The company should protect her products throuhg the copyright law.

Consider backup strategies for the company

The best way or the best back up strategy should be based on the following steps

The effectiveness of a good backup program depends on your approach to file backup management. The following are key considerations

ɨ How valuable are your files ?

ɨ What would be the consequences of losing these files ?

ɨ Could you replace them ? f so, what would be the time and cost required ?

ɨ How often do these files change ?

ɨ Do you need to keep older versions of files ?

ɨ Does the device you use to back up files have any limitation of time, media capacity, or expense ?

ɨ Do you need to transport or distribute your backed-up files ?

ɨ Once backed-up, how important is immediate access to these files ?

These issues can be divided into certain basic categories value, change, performance, media capacity, and portability. Strategies frequently are based on a combination of these considerations and should develop a plan that lets you restore files easily should it become necessary.

Value

When you devise a strategy, consider your cost in time and money to replace lost files. For example, if you work for an insurance company managing client information and claims, then you would probably consider file loss disastrous. The consequence of losing irreplaceable files makes it desirable to back up your files every day to different media.

Change

How often your files change is another key element to consider when planning an effective strategy. for example, losing even part of one days input at a mail-order house would result in many lost orders and lost revenues. Your strategy might be to backup only changed files periodically throughout the day to ensure that a recent copy of all files exists.

Media capacity and device performance

You should backup completely once a day but this is not always possible due to time, media, or device restrictions. You must assess your physical setup (for example, type and size of the available backup device) to effectively plan a strategy. Your strategy depends upon the kind of backup device you use, just as you may choose a device in response to the kind of strategy you consider necessary.

Portability

Media portability may also influence the strategy you implement. For instance, in situations where files must be circulated within your department or sent to another site, you would want to use a backup device to physically transport your media. You must also choose a device with media compatible with other devices and with the environments to which you send the data.

Media

Use only high-quality media for your backups. GRBackPro is careful to check that each media is reliable but you can increase your long term reliability of the backup when you use high-quality media.

Hardware

Unsure that your hardware is fully operational. A backup program cannot operate effectively if the drive is not perfectly working. Faulty disk controllers and other circuitry ca also cause information to be written incorrectly to the media compromising existing files.

Labeling

Clearly label all backup media. This will allows you to easily retrieve them when you have lost a file.

Media Rotation

There are two types of backups

ɨ Full

ɨ Modified (also known as incremental or differential)

A Full backup of your files require mode time and media. A full backup however, should be performed regularly (at least once a week, depending on your work volume).

A modified backup saves time and media. Usually, only a few files on you hard disk are new or have been changed since each week. The Incremental mode backs up any files that have changed or been created since the most recent Full or Incremental backup. The Differential mode backs up all files that have changed or been created since the most recent Full backup.

Finally, to minimize data loss and computer downtime when a hard disk crash occurs, you should follow these rules when backing up your data

1. Perform a Full backup of your hard disk, and make sure that the option Clear archive attribute bit on the source file on the Backup dialog is checked. Place this backup in a safe place.

. Perform Modified backups as a part of your future backup strategy rather than backing up your entire system. This method saves time and media. When you select the Differential mode the backup program backs up only those files that have been modified or created since the last Full backup.

. Maintain at least two sets of backups with Modified backups, and rotate these sets to be prepared for a system crash. Restoring the latest backup set updates your system to its latest stable state.

Would you recommend encryption?

For some security reason encryption can be one of the most efficient way to protect the system of the company especially when exchanging sensitive data (e.g., financial or personal information) over the Internet, senders and receivers require secure communications. For example, a user of a Web services protocol such as SOAP may want to encrypt the payload part of the XML message but not the information necessary to route the payload to its recipient. Or, an XForms application might require that the payment authorization be digitally signed, and the actual payment method, such as a credit card number, be encrypted. And, of course, XML Encryption can be used to secure complete data objects as well such as such as an image or sound file.

What is encryption ?how does it work? List at least four method of encryption technologies that are available and explain of them.

Encryption is the process of scrambling information such that it is only readable by intended recipients, after unscrambling. While an encrypted message or file may be accessible to a wide community, such as network intermediaries, it is not meaningful to those intermediaries, or to eavesdroppers who may be watching information packets travel across a network. Encrypted data has been rendered opaque by mathematically encrypting it in a way that makes it unreadable to anyone except those possessing the secret, or key to decrypt it.

How does it work?

If the security settings of your browser are correct, you will be informed of any potential recipient web sites that are suspicious or should be avoided. That is how unauthorised third parties will be prevented from getting access to data during transfer whenever a form is used for transferring sensitive data, it will automatically be subject to SSL-mode (Secure Socket Layer-mode).

The corresponding encryption is based on the SSL-certificate consisting of two keys the public and the private key. If you are sending personal data to Trusted Shops, you are using Trusted Shops public key for data encryption. During the data transfer to Trusted Shops, your personal data is protected from unauthorised access by third parties. Only Trusted Shops is in possession of the private key required! All this happens automatically whenever you select a secure connection that can be easily identified by the https preceding the URL address (e.g. http/www.alphabeta.edu.au) and the activated lock or key symbol in your browser window.

Methods of Encryption

There are several methods can be used to encrypt data streams, all of which can easily be implemented through software, but not so easily decrypted when either the original or its encrypted data stream are unavailable. (When both source and encrypted data are available, code-breaking becomes much simpler, though it is not necessarily easy).

Here are some methods

1- Data Encryption Standard (DES)

DES was designed in the early 170s and adopted by the U.S. government by 177. It encrypts 64-bit blocks of text using a 56-bit key. This yields trillions of possible permutations. Unfortunately, the 56-bit encryption can be broken by high powered, but affordable, workstations (Bruno).

Because DES can be so readily compromised, many suppliers are using a variation referred to as triple DES. Under this system, each block of text is encrypted three times using three different keys. Although there is an increasing number of alternative algorithms available, and the U.S. government has yet to embrace it, triple DES is emerging as a de facto commercial standard (Bruno). Encryption can be improved further by using longer keys. However, the U.S. government currently restricts export of keys longer than 40 bits. This is a length that is not difficult for many to crack. A further discussion surrounding the U.S. government and encryption can be found later in the paper.

Longer keys do not necessarily guarantee security. Mathematics tells us that if keys are made long enough, it would take hundreds of years without a supercomputer to crack the code. However, as demonstrated by a French hacker in August of 15 and again later by two computer science graduate students at the University of California at Berkeley in December of the same year, it is possible to quickly find shortcuts to finding the secret key. It has been demonstrated that on some systems the random numbers generated are not necessarily very random. The graduate students used two days to evaluate the vulnerabilities and write a program which could guess the encryption key within one minute (Sandberg 5). Another possible way around the encryption keys is by eavesdropping and timing precisely how long it takes the secret key to be computed. Once this is known, it allows the hacker to significantly reduce the number of possible permutations

- stream cipher

stream cipher is a type of symmetric encryption algorithm. Stream ciphers can be designed to be exceptionally fast, much faster than any block cipher while block ciphers operate on large blocks of data, stream ciphers typically operate on smaller units of plaintext, usually bits. The encryption of any particular plaintext with a block cipher will result in the same cipher text when the same key is used. With a stream cipher, the transformation of these smaller plaintext units will vary, depending on when they are encountered during the encryption process.

A stream cipher generates what is called a key stream (a sequence of bits used as a key). Encryption is accomplished by combining the key stream with the plaintext, usually with the bit wise XOR operation. The generation of the key stream can be independent of the plaintext and cipher text, yielding what is termed a synchronous stream cipher, or it can depend on the data and its encryption, in which case the stream cipher is said to be self-synchronizing. Most stream cipher designs are for synchronous stream ciphers.

One-time pads

Current interest in stream ciphers is most commonly attributed to the appealing theoretical properties of the one-time pad. A one-time pad, sometimes called the Vernam cipher uses a string of bits that is generated completely at random. The key stream is the same length as the plaintext message and the random string is combined using bit wise XOR with the plaintext to produce the cipher text. Since the entire key stream is random, even an opponent with infinite computational resources can only guess the plaintext if he or she sees the cipher text. Such a cipher is said to offer perfect secrecy, and the analysis of the one-time pad is seen as one of the cornerstones of modern cryptography while the one-time pad saw use during wartime over diplomatic channels requiring exceptionally high security, the fact that the secret key (which can be used only once) is as long as the message introduces severe key management problems. While perfectly secure, the one-time pad is in general impractical.

Stream ciphers were developed as an approximation to the action of the one-time pad. While contemporary stream ciphers are unable to provide the satisfying theoretical security of the one-time pad, they are at least practical.

As of now there is no stream cipher that has emerged as a de facto standard. The most widely used stream cipher is RC4. Interestingly, certain modes of operation of a block cipher effectively transform it into a key stream generator and in this way, any block cipher can be used as a stream cipher; as in DES in CFB or OFB modes. However, stream ciphers with a dedicated design are typically much faster

- data repositioning

4- opportunistic encryption

Design a WAN model for this company considering all security issues discussed earlier.

a professional WAN design should save the company time and money by;

  Not wasting time designing an inappropriate solution.

  Identifying all the issues involved in the installation so that the installation team are fully prepared.

  Setting the correct performance expectation so that our customers know exactly what will be delivered.

  Ensuring that the installation is successful first time without the need for repeated visits

The requirement analysis for WAN design are quite similar to that of LAN design. The most scalable design for Wide Area Network implementation is a Hierarchical model with each layer performing a particular function. Enterprise WANs can be made up of several different WAN technologies. Placement of servers is very critical in order to control traffic patterns across the WAN.

Analyze Requirements (of the network and its users)

ɨ Business issues

ɨ Technology issues

ɨ Administrative issues

ɨ Gather Data -

o Corporate Structure

o Business information flow

o Applications in use

o Current topology

o Performance characteristics of current network

o Determine if documented policies are in place

o Mission-critical data

o Mission-critical operations

o Approved protocols and platforms

o Control versus distributed authority

ɨ Business requirements

ɨ Technical requirements

ɨ New applications or business operations

ɨ Availability requirements -

o Throughput

o Response time

o Access to resources

Design Rule First and foremost you must understand the customer and find out what availability means to your customer.

Analyze Network Load Requirements

ɨ Client/Server applications

ɨ Host/terminal applications

ɨ Routing protocols

ɨ Regularly scheduled services, such as file backup

ɨ Estimate worst-case traffic load during the busiest times for users and during regularly scheduled network services

Design Rule Before developing an internet work structure and provisioning hardware, determine the network traffic load. Evaluate applications that cause traffic problems

A point-to-point link provides a single, re-established WAN communications path from the customer premises through a carrier network, such as a telephone company, to a remote network. A point-to-point link is also known as a leased line because its established path is permanent and fixed for each remote network reached through the carrier facilities. The carrier company reserves point-to-point links for the private use of the customer. These links accommodate two types of transmissions data gram transmissions, which are composed of individually addressed frames, and data-stream transmissions, which are composed of a stream of data for which address checking occurs only once.

Circuit switching is a WAN switching method in which a dedicated physical circuit is established, maintained, and terminated through a carrier network for each communication session. Circuit switching accommodates two types of transmissions data gram transmissions and data-stream transmissions. Used extensively in telephone company networks, circuit switching operates much like a normal telephone call.

Packet switching is a WAN switching method in which network devices share a single point-to-point link to transport packets from a source to a destination across a carrier network. Statistical multiplexing is used to enable devices to share these circuits. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, Switched Multi megabit Data Service (SMDS), and X.5 are examples of packet-switched WAN technologies.

Regarding the security issues, the security procedures that we applied in designing a model for OZZICOM enterprise network security.

1. Security Assessment

. Penetration Testing

. Security Policy Design

4. Firewall Protection

5. Remote Access and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

6. Intrusion Detection

7. Virus and Malicious Code Protection

List the internal and the external threats that might face the OZZICOM system

Incidents of both internal and external computer crimes appear to be on the rise. Recent surveys indicate that disgruntled employees may account for up to eighty-nine percent (8%) of attacks and security violations.

Threats that surface from the inside are

ɨ Acts of revenge, stemming from employee rivalry and/or jealousy.

ɨ Employees providing access to company resources to friends and family, thus exposing other company resources to unacceptable risk.

ɨ Theft of company intellectual property, (for instance, sharing with friends outside the company).

ɨ Collecting or selling company trade secrets (corporate espionage).

ɨ Hardware / Software theft.

ɨ Lack of accountability.

Increasingly, companies are relying on outside contractors (not in itself a bad thing), and giving these contractors full employee privileges. However, considering the lack of accountability potentially implicit in short-term contracting, certain precautions should be taken.

The best way to deal with this risk is to do background checks on all contractors, and weigh and evaluate all authorization they are given access to. Some of these privileges not always be obvious. For example, if a contractor has LAN access, you may be inadvertently granting him or her full access to all internal file shares and system resources on your Intranet. Does your Intranet WWW server contain propriety documentation for internal employee-programmers? If so, are there restrictions stopping non-programmers or employees from accessing these sensitive documents, if all that is required is internal LAN access?

It also must be said that the most powerful person in your company is not a manager or corporate officer, but the sys admin. Since this person has full access to most systems, and in many cases designed the security system used to keep others out it is the sys admin who knows the inside of the system, knows how the networks are configured, and what trust mechanisms exist between machines. Thus he or she has the best understanding of how to do damage.

Commonly, sys admins are also the only people with super user access passwords or the software authorization codes.

This situation poses another risk in that it presents itself as a single point of failure. To prevent such risks, I typically recommend to my clients that the establishment of alternative root or administrator accounts be created with a strong randomized password. This password should then be broken into three parts and given to officers of the company. Thus, when denial of access problems occur (e.g. if the sys admin is hit by a truck, or simply snowed in at an airport halfway across the country), emergency access can be obtained with minimal difficulty.

Programmers and engineers are notorious for installing administrative backdoors in to their workstations and development servers. Crackers or other employees frequently discover and use these backdoors for nefarious purposes.

The best protection against the above is having a independent third party, or at least a team of programmers from a different department/project, professionally review the integrity of your source code tree.

Other employee based security violations include dialing up to a ISP from work thus inadvertently becoming a back door on to the company LAN. In many other cases employees install backdoors to allow themselves to work remotely from home or satellite offices, thus creating alternate unrestricted access pathways that are vulnerable to attack.

What kind of security should you consider for dial-up access ? discuss

First of all to extend the accessibility of the company server can prove to be a valuable resource for your employees that spend time away from the office, or perhaps a means to bring timely information to a remote broadcast; but, at the same time, you provide a prime opportunity for hackers to gain entry onto the network. Whichever remote access solution you decide upon, the first and most important detail to be considered is securing the network. You have no doubt heard of, or perhaps even have set up, a firewall.

The firewall is a security mechanism used to control access to your network. Most firewalls are hardware devices; however, several software products are available for small networks and individual workstations. The hardware-based firewall has been around for several years, and is also known as a "proxy server" or "gateway."

The concept behind it is simple an outside user would first establish contact with the proxy server, which would require the proper authentication, typically in the form of user name and password. Once the user is verified and authorized, the proxy server will then establish a "session" between the user and server. You will recall that the networking model that is in use today is defined by a document known as the Open Standards Interconnect (OSI) and is comprised of seven layers physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application. Each layer provides services to the other layers immediately before and/or after it. Firewalls generally operate at either the Network or Application layer.

A proxy server is an example of a firewall operating at the application layer. Essentially, a firewall operating at the application layer eliminates the direct flow of data between the network and an outside user. Firewalls operating at the "network" layer route traffic based on the source and destination addresses, as well as the intended port of each IP packet. The definition and use of ports is a lengthy subject but, simply put, it presents "virtual slots" used to map connections between two hosts at the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) levels. Network firewalls permit traffic into a network based on a set of rules that are programmed by the network administrator. The rules determine what type of traffic is permitted on the network and what will be blocked. The current generation of network routers has sufficient intelligence that allows them to be programmed to act as a simple firewall.

Dial-up access

By far the simplest method for remote access, dial-up access to your network can be accomplished in a variety of ways, depending on the number and location of users that will need to use the network. The most rudimentary method to implement dial-in access would be to add a basic PC workstation equipped with one or more modems and a network card to your existing network. Outside users would dial the telephone line(s) that have been assigned to the modem(s). The login process may vary depending on the type of network operating system and configuration of the host PC. Most dial-in access uses the standard dialer client program that you probably use to dial-in to your Internet Service Provider. You would create a dial location containing the telephone number and protocols for your dial-in number.

Another means to gain remote access would be to use a program such as PC Anywhere or Co Session that would mimic the operation of the PC located in the office as if you were there. One drawback of this method is that someone could watch what you are doing remotely on the office PC and possibly gain privileged information.

Accommodating a larger user base is slightly more complicated and requires either the use of centrally located modem banks or access provided by the telephone company. Modem banks are typically rack-mounted equipment frames that accept plug-in modem modules. Each module is attached to a dedicated telephone line. Modem banks aggregate traffic flowing through the individual modems into a single signal such as T1 or USB.

Another approach, offered by the various telephone companies, allows users to access your server using local dial lines through leasing access to local modem banks located within a particular region or nationally. The data from these connections are delivered directly to your server using your existing Internet connection.

Extranets and VPNs

Extranets permit the access of company information through a web site using any Internet connection including dial-in, VPN, T1, etc. Implementation of an extranet typically doesnt require much in the way of external hardware, with the exception of a good firewall. The design of a proper extranet requires the collaboration of web designers and IT managers.

Using the global presence of the Internet, VPNs provide a secure and cost-effective solution to connect remote users to your network. One recent study predicts that, over the next three years, the majority of businesses will use VPNs. As you will recall, the VPN works through a process called "IP Tunneling." IP tunneling permits the transport of both IP and non-IP protocols over any TCP/IP network, including the Internet. The VPN also offers a higher lever of encryption, thus eliminating the possibility of any data becoming "readable" by potential hackers.

Implementation of a VPN is achieved using the standard network hardware, such as a firewall, router, etc. More recently, single devices are available that integrate the firewall, router and a means to manage bandwidth into a single device which supports all the VPN specific protocols. Specialized software that handles the log-on/off, IP tunneling and encryption processes is loaded on the remote computer. Starting a VPN session is as easy logging on to your ISP.

As with any major addition to your network, its important to have a complete understanding of the potential benefits vs. the security risks, and always maintain a security plan that is applied consistently.

10_discuss aspects of security such as data accessibility, data integrity ,data confidentiality.

Data accessibility

Data Accessibility is the key to efficiency in most organizations. The ability to retrieve specific documentation instantaneously, without the need to either hunt through a filing cabinet or search through large network drives for a document or file. Conventional documents on the file server do not contain a description in their name or any indication as to what they are related to or what the file contains.

Data integrity

is an umbrella term that refers to the consistency, accuracy, and correctness of data stored in a database. Data integrity is not about physical security, fault tolerance, or data preservation (backups)

Data confidentiality

Ensuring that information is not accessed by unauthorized persons

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Female Sexuality Piecing Together the Enigma and Clarifying Myths

Understanding our sexuality is such an important part of being human. Seeking out information to not only clarify but correct myths and piece together the sexual puzzle is essential if we, as females, want to live full, happy, and healthy lives. The purpose of this paper is to explore many issues surrounding female sexuality. In the first part of the book, I plan on discussing the differing perspectives of sexuality along with defining what the term actually means. In order to do so, many dimensions of sexuality will be explained. These dimensions include biological, psychosocial, behavioral, clinical and cultural.

Historical perspectives are then discussed. Throughout history there have been many people who have contributed to issues surrounding sexuality and are important to note. Sigmund Freud was one of the first, who demonstrated the importance of sexuality in human lives. Havelock Ellis was another pioneer in the area of sexuality, who attempted to explain psychological causes of sexual problems. Alfred Kinsey, upon discovering the apparent lack of information on human sexual behavior, set out to collect information using questionnaires to get direct feedback from people. Masters and Johnson, a M.D. and behavioral scientist respectively, observed and recorded physical details of human sexual arousal. Their work has really helped to change contemporary thinking on sexuality. Also, Shere Hite conducted a nationwide survey for females from a wide range of ages, asking many questions regarding their sexuality.

In continuing, I will delve into the issue of sexual responsibility and its historical roles. History, had assigned males the role of sexual responsibility, while females have been given the role of sexual acceptors. Upon explaining the double standards established back during the Industrial Revolution, I will present a timeline. Included in this, will be the light shed on sexuality in the 150's, as more information was discovered by researchers such as Kinsey, historical roles began to change. Then I will discuss what has been happening in the last decade.

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The next section covered, will be of the stages of sexuality, beginning with childhood. Here, I will go over the physical dimensions of sexual arousal in young infants, along with the importance of closeness and touch in the early stages of life. Also covered will be the importance of educating children on sex.

I will then discuss adolescence. In early adolescence, the double standard becomes more apparent, and passivity plays a major role in young females. As puberty sets in, physical changes take place such as breast development, pubic hair growth, the female body changes shape, and menstruation begins. Additionally, there a psychosexual aspects covered that include the increase in occurrence of fantasies and sexual dreams. At this time, masturbation usually begins, and adolescence attempt to become more independent from their parents.

Adulthood is the time of life when important life choices are being made and perspectives on sex changes. As middle adulthood sets in, there are physiological changes that occur for women such as menopause and sexual burnout. Psychological changes also occur which may include mid-life crises. And during late adulthood, I contradict the common ignorant thought; sex is for the young and beautiful.

Orgasm is the next topic I will discuss, explaining what exactly it is, or at least thought to be, such as the vaginal orgasm and the clitoral orgasm. There has been controversy over the two, and I will explain the reasons behind them such as women lacking understanding of the anatomy of their bodies, along with the phallocentric view of orgasm.

I will also explain the G-spot, along with when the term originated, and where the spot supposedly is, although it has yet to be scientifically proven. Also, I suggest that perhaps this spot is more phallocentric than anatomical.

Furthermore, along this topic, includes the technology used to create orgasms. I will explain the history of instruments used by physicians to cure women's "hysteria", which was thought to have two sources female masturbation was thought to be unchaste; the failure of intercourse to produce orgasms regularly in women. The original vibrator was used by physicians to aid in curing this "disease". During the 10's, vibrators began to disappear from doctor's offices. However, in the 160's, they reemerged as sex aids.

Finally, I will touch on masturbation, and how our culture does not accept masturbation as a natural process (especially for women). Using The Hite Report, I will illustrate women's feelings and thoughts about masturbation, further contradicting society's view.

Sexuality Different Views

Sexual perspectives are not the same for every person. Both internal and external forces that have molded our views of sexuality have affected each one of us. These forces range from personal experiences to cultural and social effects. Although all people do share in common the existence of sexual feelings, attitudes, and beliefs, every person's perspective differs. Therefore, it is important to recognize the many views to help paint a detailed picture of sexuality that can help us in so many ways. Awareness and recognition enhance our ability to not only deal with and prevent problems that may arise in our lives such as impotence, sexually transmitted diseases, and sexual harassment, but also help educate our children, and most importantly, helping to fully develop our intimate relationships and increasing our sexual satisfaction. In order to broaden our understanding of sexuality, we can divide up sexuality into different studies from biological, psychological, behavioral, clinical, and cultural perspectives, keeping in mind that learning about sexuality is really the study of human nature. (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p.)

Everyone knows what sexuality is, don't they? So, what is the definition of sexuality? According to the American Heritage Dictionary, on page 66, sexuality is defined as "The condition of being characterized and distinguished by sex." Now that really does not give us a clear understanding of the word. A woman by the name of Webster once wrote "I'm not sure if I used to know what 'sexuality' meant and forgot, or whether the meanings of the word have become so varied that nobody knows what anyone is talking about. Or have the norms, which informed the meaning, been so radically shaken that new meanings must be identified and put into language that reflects new realities? Maybe we never really knew what it meant, and some of us just pretended that we did." (Daniluk, 18, p.6) Many writers have attempted to explain what they think sexuality means. Sigmund Freud came up with his own interpretation of the word when he wrote, "One would certainly think that there could be no doubt about what is to be understood by the term 'sexual'. First and foremost, of course, it means the 'improper,' that which must not be mentioned." (Johnson,, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p.4) On another extreme, sexuality has been expressed a bit rawly than the past two remarks when Miller wrote, " ' Francie, you bloody fucker,' I used to say, 'you've got the morals of a clam.' 'But you like me don't you?' she'd answer. 'Men like to fuck, and so do women. It doesn't harm anybody and it doesn't mean you have to love everyone you fuck, does it?'" (p.4) Other writers have attempted to define sexuality by emphasizing the physical expression if interpersonal intimacy, along with relational components. (Daniluk, 18, p.7)

Looking over these definitions, sexuality appears to be more about what each woman defines as sexual, rather than what some textbook, scientist, philosopher, or writer states. Sexuality is defined by its meaning of the experience to each individual woman. This might help to explain why the term is so difficult to truly understand. Since there is no single answer regarding the definition of sexuality, exploring the dimensions of sexuality may help us to better understand the term.

Sexuality's biological dimensions include but are not limited to our physical sexual development, from conception to birth and our ability to reproduce according to Johnson, Kolodny and Masters, (p. 7) Additionally, biological factors affect the human sexual desire, functioning, and even satisfaction. These forces may even affect behavior, causing females to respond less aggressively than males. Furthermore, when individuals feel "turned on", there are specific biological events that take place such as a faster pulse, one's face may turn red, sexual organs respond, and even a feeling of warmth may envelop a person. (p. 7)

Psychosocial is another dimension of sexuality, which explains sexual development in people and helps to identify sexual problems. (p. 8) Basically, this dimension includes what we feel, behave, and think about contact with others. From birth on, we all interact with different individuals and groups that help shape and mold our sense of gender identity. Many of our perceptions on sexuality are based on what others have told us and been exemplified for us, giving basic guidelines on what to do, and what not to do.

In the behavioral dimension, we go one step further from observing the biological and psychosocial dimensions, in that the focus becomes not only what people do regarding sexual behavior, but also how and why they do it. (p. 8,) In this dimension, the actual activity, or behavior is what is observed. When examining these areas, we all need to remember that we can not base what others do on our own ideas of "normal" simply because that is what we do. Every person is unique and carries their own experiences and values, therefore, there is no such thing as "normal" simply because you or I do something that we believe should be thought of as such.

The clinical dimension, attempts to identify and resolve sexual problems that cause people to fall short of experiencing sexual satisfaction. Such problems may include feelings of depression, anxiety, guilt, or even such physical ailments as the flu, breaking a leg, or using drugs. The clinical dimension looks to overcome and find solutions to these types of problems. According to Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, over the past two decades, there have been two key changes that have contributed to the success of this area; a more complete understanding of the many dimensions of sexuality, and the science of sexology, which is the study devoted to sex. (p. )

Finally, the cultural dimension is an important part of sexuality that must be recognized. Each culture varies on sexuality perspectives. (p.10) In America, for example, our culture is accepting of being more open sexually. Just turn on the television and watch five minutes of the Jerry Springer Show and it will be obvious what is being suggested. In other cultures, such as in India, it is less acceptable to express sexuality openly. Each culture hold differing morals, which many times, tie into religious traditions. However, having morals does not necessarily mean one must be religious. The point is, each culture carries different feeling regarding sexuality, and different levels of acceptable and not acceptable behaviors.

Sexuality Historical Perspectives

Throughout history there have been many people that have contributed to the issues surrounding sexuality. Notably, one of these pioneers was Sigmund Freud (1856-1). Freud was a Viennese physician, who was able to demonstrate the importance of sexuality to human lives. (p. 18) His contributions were, and still are considered genius for his ability to construct his original discoveries into an organized and persuasive theory. "Freud believed that sexuality was both the primary force in the motivation of all human behavior and the principal cause of all forms of neurosis, a mild form of mental disorder in which anxiety is prominent and coping skills are distorted although a sense of reality is maintained." (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, p. 18) He created many concepts related to sexuality such as the Oedipal Complex which basically states that male children are attracted to their mothers, therefore causing a distorted mixture of feelings toward the father such as love and hate, all at the same time. Additionally, Freud had the notion that girls felt something call penis envy, in which they were jealous and had feeling of inadequacy toward the lack of a penis. (18) Although today, many of these theories have been dismissed, Freud's theory of an elaborate mental process called psychoanalysis, is still used much of the time. Psychoanalysis is a technique that uses free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of feelings and behavior to investigate mental disorders. ( The American Heritage Dictionary, 18, p.555)

Around the same time of Freud, an English physician by the name of Henry Havelock Ellis (185-1) also wrote a book about psychological causes (rather than physical causes) of sexual problems. The book was titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex (187-11) and addressed the common occurrence of masturbation in both sexes at all ages, and was against the Victorian notion that "good" girls and women had no sexual desire. (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, pg. 1) This book caused great controversy and was banned for a number of years.

Alfred Kinsey (184-156), was a zoologist at Indiana University, who when asked to teach a college course, was stunned by the lack of scientific data on human sexual behavior. (p. 0) So what Kinsey set out to do, was administer questionnaires to students directly, regarding their sexual history in the hopes that these questionnaires would bring about detailed information in order to assist in learning about human sexual behavior. This small project grew and over the years to follow, Kinsey interviewed thousands of men and women across the country. Finally, in 148 Kinsey published his findings in , Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, which was widely accepted, selling over 100,000 copies within a few months. The book was based on face-to-face interviews with over 1,000 people from all different areas. Then in 15, with Paul Gebhard (colleague), Kinsey published a book titled, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. (p.1) Initially, this book was not so widely accepted. Actually, many people saw the book as offensive, with many newspapers and even the church denouncing it.

"Kinsey died in 156, embittered and disillusioned, but the impact of his energetic investigations was to be strongly apparent in the years ahead." (p. 1)

William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, were a physician and a behavioral scientist at Washington University Medical School in St. Lois. They believed that in order to fully understand human sexuality with all of its complexities, anatomy and physiology as well as psychological and sociological data must be understood. (p. )

They too believed as Kinsey, that there was a lack of information regarding human sexuality. So what they did, was decide to use a laboratory approach. In 154, they began observing and recording physical details of human sexual arousal. In 166, they wrote a report after observing over 10,000 episodes of sexual activity entitled, Human Sexual Response, that identified the four phases in the human sexual response cycle excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. At this point in time, the generally repressive attitude toward sexuality was beginning to lift and the book was able to captivate the public. It was around this period, that Masters divorced his wife, and wed Johnson. They continued their research and publication efforts in the years to follow publishing many books from Homosexuality in Perspective, Human Sexual Inadequacy, Heterosexual Behavior in the Age of AIDS, and many others. Thirty years since their first study, Masters and Johnson's work has been considered to be among the most significant in the areas of sexual functioning, sexual problems, and therapeutic interventions. Although some of their work is still criticized, they have helped to change contemporary thinking about sex, including assisting in moving society toward a more open discussion of sexual practices and experiences.

Shere Hite published The Hite Report A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality in 176. What Hite did, was distribute to about 100,000 women ranging in age from 14 to 78, a questionnaire about sexuality. Hite included about ,000 self-reported results in her 478 page book which also contained statistical analysis, with most of the book comprised of candidly open accounts, opinions, and complaints, relating to questionnaire respondents. (Hite, 176) Although there were many who openly criticized her book, most women felt a sense of reassurance by reading it since other women were so frank with their opinions and encounters. Shere Hite surmised that most women were far from satisfied sexually, which succeeded in challenging numerous accepted notions about female sexuality.

Hite also wrote The Hite Report on Male Sexuality in 181 with questionnaires completed by men. And in 187, published an update to her original book, The Hite Report on Women and Love A Cultural Revolution in Progress, which brought renewed notoriety to her once controversial theory that women lacked sexual pleasures in their lives.

Sexual Responsibility

"Responsibility" essentially means being held liable for something, or in some cases, someone. Sadly enough, the word "responsibility" also falls into use when speaking of sexual relationships. "Historically, the male has been assigned the role of sexual responsibility while the female has been confined to a role of sexual acceptance-stereotypes that show little knowledge, of or regard for, the natural capabilities of either sex." (Masters & Johnson, 174, p.)

These roles, created during a time of little to no knowledge regarding variation in both male and female capacity, basically put all men into the category of being the aggressor, who ravish sweet, innocent women, which greatly appreciate the gesture. All women shall be assigned the role of the humble, but grateful creatures that should be happy for all that they receive.

As people struggle with what their personal sexual needs are and what their sexual roles include, coping takes place in many different forms. Some, use dirty jokes to simplify sexuality, while others, pretend that it doesn't exist through repression. Some people simply just endure, while others attempt to break free of their roles and openly express their sexuality. (p. 4)

In the early development of our double standard society, husbands and wives living in a then rural society found themselves achieving sexual unity. At that stage, it was widely accepted that sex was a source of mutual pleasure for both males and females as long as they stayed within certain boundaries, which included being practical with regards to sex. (p.4)

As the industrial revolution rolled in, women and men became divided as they both went off to work. Life became increasingly hectic, as daily routine quickened in pace, and men and women began to get lost in the dust of it all, loosing sight of what was important; the need for each other. On top of it all, the many religions, churches, social intolerances and ignorance of sexual matters by health-care professionals pressed down on the loss of focus, skewing what was accepted, creating a real problem lack of sexual response as a natural physiological process. (p.5)

"When sexual response was separated in our thinking from its rightful place as a natural function, sexual misconceptions and even taboos inevitably became integral parts of the social structure." (Masters & Johnson, 174, p. 5) Sex for human warmth and human pleasure were obscured by sex for procreation, and the concept of sex as a sin. Men and women learned from social arbitration what sex must be. With the increasing pressures, severe neurotic and even psychotic patterns have developed in many men and women.

Male roles became experts of sex, a fountain of knowledge, with an answer for everything to do with sexual activities. Masters and Johnson have suggested that perhaps this is due to the historic male role as the protector and provider, or from the male fear of the unknown or the misunderstood sexual potential of the female. (p.5) Whatever reason, the idea was still that man knows all. A popular clich as we all know regarding adolescent boys is, "boys will be boys!" Insinuating that they need experience in order to have their wealth of knowledge, yet not quite giving the verbal permission explicitly.

So what were women expected to do? Pretty much, nothing! They were thought of as seminal receptacles. "Everyone knew or at least all men know and most women pretended that 'nice' women had no sexual feelings, that respected wives only submitted in the hope of conceiving and that 'those women' who freely responded sexually simply weren't the kind you married." (Masters & Johnson, 174, p. 6)

Up until about half way though the century, everyone knew that on a couple's wedding night, sex was something the man did to the woman. And prior to the big event, the wife must be a virgin, or conceal the hymen loss from past intercourse. But keep in mind that since men must be all knowing, then they are assumed to have previous experience. However, those who had little to no experience had to hide their insecurities and fake their expertise.

During this period, it was typical of gynecological textbooks to state how women are nonorgasmic and rarely, if ever had sexual feelings or interest. Additionally, men have written more than 5% of everything ever published on the subject of female sexual response, most objectively, and all with no clue what they were writing about. (p 6) It wasn't until the 150's when some light was shed on female sexual functioning. At this point, Kinsey and others began opening the door to women's sexual functioning. Professionals began asserting women had real sexual feelings and legitimate interests. (Surprisingly enough, women already knew this!) Men's roles began changing as women's gained increased sexual permissiveness. Then, it was up to men to not do something to his wife, rather, for his wife in the 150's and 160's. Women, no longer had to provide a service, but were still expected to acknowledge their husband's expertise. (p. )

Slowly, more and more information has been discovered that replaced ignorance, misconceptions and myths, and within the last decade, things finally started moving quicker. Society is becoming more comfortable, while individuals become increasingly informed, and teaching our children about sexuality has caused many to grow into viable adults. (p. ) Today, sexual responsibility is assumed by both men and women, eliminating the notion of just one sex carrying the "responsibility" burden. There is no way that a man can be responsibly for a woman's sexual functioning and vice versa. Sexuality is a natural process for everyone that cannot be forced. Masters and Johnson sum it up nicely when they state, " Sexual responsibility has a twofold implication in today's world. Primarily, we are responsible only for ourselves in our sexual commitments, for full communication of our sexual wants and, subsequently, for physical expression of our sexual drives. Also, we are committed to remaining fully attuned to partner communication and to the cooperation necessary to enable one's partner to satisfy his or her sexual needs. Secondarily, our sexual responsibility extends not only to fully obligation for pregnancy, but to adequate control of conception." (p. 15)

Stages of Female Sexuality Childhood and Adolescence

The meaning of the term "sexual" originates in early childhood for women. As children grow, they learn from their parents, caretakers, media, and culture about what is and isn't normal, and what is expected of them. "The child turns to these sources in an attempt to interpret her 'bodily sensations, name the parts and the acts, identify sets of feelings, [and] make sense of emerging relationships.'" (Daniluk, 18, p., Plummer, 11, p. 8)

"Childhood has been called 'the last frontier in sex research' because there is little reliable data about sexual behavior during this formative time." (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p. 1) Attempts have been made to interview adults regarding how they felt, or what they did when they were children. However, this only resulted in skewed results because many were too embarrassed to tell, and wanted to be perceived as "normal". When trying to ask children these same questions, society viewed the attempts as outrageous- putting dirty ideas into the minds of their children. To understand the development of sexuality in young girls, focusing on the typical patterns of sexual development during childhood can be more effective in helping children to learn and understand about sexuality in a comfortable way.

Sexual reflexes such as the reflex erection of baby boys in the womb are evident several months before birth through ultrasound studies. Newborn baby girls have vaginal lubrication and clitoral erection in their first twenty-four hours after birth, so it is highly probable that these reactions are also occurring before birth. (p. 14-15)

"An important phase of infantile sexuality comes from the sensuous closeness of parent and child through holding, clinging, and cuddling." (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p. 14) At birth, this bond begins, and also includes such interactions as nursing, bathing, dressing, and all other physical interactions. Any child that has been neglected in regards to human warmth and touch, may later experience difficulties forming intimate relationships or being comfortable with his or her own sexuality.

Young infants respond with sexual arousal naturally, to many different sources of physical interaction. For example, baby boys may have an erection during nursing. (p.14) While some may see this as disturbing, the fact of the matter is it's quite normal. Warmth and softness of their mother's skin or other sources causes messages to be sent to the brain and are interpreted as pleasurable activities. Clitoral erection and vaginal lubrication is equally as common in young girls during nursing. How parents respond to these sexual reflexes plays a huge role in developing the child's earliest sexual learning. Acting shocked by such arousals conveys discomfort. Calm actions, conveys acceptance. This is extremely important for parents to recognize and understand. (p. 15)

By the age of two, most children have developed a sense of being a girl or boy. Curiosity develops about different body parts and children discover that the genitals, when stimulated, may be a source of pleasure. Initially, the action is solitary, however, many times it develops into a game of "show and share." (p. 16)

Around this time is when children become aware of their parents responses to their actions. Disapproving genital play, yet encouraging children to be aware of their bodies can cause confusion for young children. Therefore, it is important for parents to educate their children, explaining appropriate behavior such as in public, and permitting sexual experimentation. After all, these negative messages children receive regarding their genitals may affect children viewing their genitals as "dirty".

Educating children on sex has been of great controversy in the last decade. While everyone seems to agree teaching children about sex is necessary, there is still much disagreement in what should be taught, by whom, and when. Today, 77% of Americans believe sex education should be taught in school, and when these courses are taught, 5% of parents don't allow their children to go to school that day. (p. 14)

"The truth of the matter is that teaching children about sex need not be different from teaching them about lots of other things; you don't need to have a Ph.D. in agriculture to teach children about gardening, for example. And just as you wouldn't wait for a child to ask you about the alphabet before exploring the A-B-C's, don't wait to talk about sex, either- take the initiative in talking about this topic." (Kolodny, Johnson and Masters, 185, p. 14-15)

As young girls grow, a double standard also develops. Girls are strongly cautioned against sex play, while boys are given more of an opportunity by parents looking the other way and making such comments as, "Boys will be boys!" Furthermore, young girls are taught many other things such as what is expected of them sexually. Barbie was the first toy that taught many girls what was expected of them sexually. (Wolf, 17, p. 14) Her posture exemplified that being sexual was being mobile, walk on your toes, with your bust out, and rigid limbs to the side. Additionally, Barbie always wears fancy clothes, has white teeth, and large breasts with a teeny, tiny waist. All the while, Ken remains a eunuch.

As young girls prepared for adolescence, passivity was a major rule girls couldn't ask boys to dance, aren't suppose to kiss on the first date, and aren't suppose to move more than a fraction of an inch when a boy puts his arm around her. Girls must whiteout their child's erotic consciousness. This becomes very difficult especially for curious girls. Songs play on the radio about "becoming a woman" which is centered around the woman's vagueness and lack of reality. (p. 7) In the song "Knock three times", the story is of a man's sexual obsession with his anonymous downstairs neighbor. This shows how men become infatuated with women they don't even know, stressing the importance of being mysterious. And if it wasn't mystery, it was a specific attribute- "I Like Big Butts" is yet another much more recent song. Women's body parts become the center of attention, therefore, the women on the inside, is perceived as being unimportant.

As young girls begin developing into adolescence, there are a number of physical as well as psychological changes that occur. The first physical evidence usually occurs around the age of twelve, although the entire period of adolescence usually goes up to about nineteen. Changes in breasts, generally appear initially, from small conical buds increasing in size, while the nipple begins to project forward. (McCary, 17, p. 48) This is a time when they become aware of not only the physical attributes, but also the cultural attitudes surrounding them regarding breasts. As the breasts continue to grow, and become increasingly sensitive, the female body contour gradually rounds out and the pelvic areas broadens. Growth of fatty pads develops on the hips, and the vaginal epithelium, or lining, thickens. (p. 48) Soft, lightly colored pubic hair begins to grow, then becomes dark and thick.

About two years after breast development, and one year after hair appearance, menstruation begins. "The menarche, or beginning of menstruation function is the first real indication a girl is becoming a woman." (McCary, 17, p. 48) "Research confirms that most women, despite their age and life stage, remember with remarkable clarity and detail where they were when menstruation began, how they felt about the experience, and how friends and family members responded to their entrance into womanhood." (Daniluk, 18, p. 54, Delaney, Lupton, & Toth, 18) In the United States, the average age of menarche is 1.8 years in Caucasian adolescence, while it is 1.5 years in African American adolescence. A century ago, the average age was sixteen and older but since then has decreased possibly due to such factors as climate, heredity, family size, nutrition, and socioeconomic factors. (Johnson, Kolodny and Masters, 185, p. 1-140)

Usually after a year or so following menstruation, the adolescent begins ovulating, releasing mature ova, so that she can bear children. This usually occurs around age fourteen. (McCary, 17, p. 4)

Psychologically, adolescents begin having sexual fantasies and dreams, which occur more commonly at this age rather than at earlier ages. This is usually accompanied by masturbation. These fantasies appear to serve several purposes adding pleasure to sexual activity, a substitute for the real thing, to induce arousal or orgasm, and a mental rehearsal for future experiences. Fantasies also provide a safe, unembarassing means of sexual experimentation. This form of creative imagery even carries over into adulthood. (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p. 144)

Adolescents need and fight for their independence from their parents while seeking their personal identity. They also tend to feel a need to be accepted and liked by their peers, but soon discover that it's not always the case. Often times, these peer groups adapt their own set of expectations, social controls and rules, which might conflict with the adolescent's need for freedom. Adolescent females seem to feel more limits than males do in our society. Some examples may include placing a high value on female virginity. And on the other extreme, sex may be used as a status symbol (the more the better). Basically it may become "those who know" vs. "the inexperienced". (p. 145)

Teenagers' personal issues regarding sexual decision making, such as individual psychological readiness, personal values, moral reasoning, fear of negative consequences, and involvement in romantic attachments are not always compatible with the peers as well. (p. 146)

Adolescence is a very difficult age. On one hand, they are no longer little kids, but on the other hand, they are not yet adults. Adults may encourage adolescence independence, however, they place them in a double bind by not allowing them to explore their sexuality, as most parents usually prohibit it. Parents may try to regulate sexual behavior through banning sex education, censor what's read or watched, design and implement school dress codes, and even go as far as pretending it doesn't exist.

Fortunately, not all parents are so controlling. Some openly discuss all the options, and even provide contraceptives. However, most are not as permissive about premarital sex, which may possibly result in their children having more traditional sex values, and have increased rates of virginity. (p. 146)

Stages of Female Sexuality Adulthood

Early adulthood is generally defined as the period between twenty and forty years of age. (Daniluk, 18, p. 14) This is a time when people make important life decisions such as marriage, occupation, and lifestyle. There are relatively few changes in reproductive functioning of young women.

Recently in the U.S., the trend had been toward marriage at a later age than past decades. (Johnson, Kolodny, and Masters, 185, p. 15) As a result, both men and women face longer periods of being single, which alters patterns of sexual behavior. Today, most people in the U.S. believe that sexual experience is an important part of selecting the right mate.

Unlike adolescence, young adults tend to be less prone to succumb to peer pressure. Sexual opportunity is also more present as young adults do not live under their parents' roof and have access to private surroundings. According to Johnson, Kolodny and Masters, there seems to be several common patterns of sexual behavior at this time in life. (185, p. 15-160) The experimenter judges sexual encounters in terms of frequency, variety, and performance proficiency. This type person views today as time to enjoy all that they can because later, they'll settle down. The seekers strives to find ideal relationships, by developing relationships and hoping for the best. These people believe that living together can prove if their partner is right for them. The traditionalist, participates willingly and joyously in sex. However, these people reserve love-making (intercourse) for Mr. or Mrs. Right. They may have several sex partners at one time.

During the early years of adulthood, many feel a sense of sexual uncertainty. Conflicts may arise because of differing attitudes of sexual guilt or immorality. Sometimes, the concern of personal physique and/or endowment, and personal lovemaking skills are carried over from adolescence. Sexual identities may not yet be out in the open, and even for those are have accepted themselves as either homosexual or bisexual, social pressures and prejudices may cause problems. (p. 160) However, some young adults have complete sexual satisfaction, so it all really depends on the individual.

Young adults today, are more sexually active than in the past. Explanations for this may be due to the disappearance of the old double standard that said premarital sex for men was OK, but not for women. (p. 160)

"By middle adulthood, which is about the age of forty, people enter into a period of transition from their younger years, which has been traditionally called 'middle age'." (p. 16) At this point, for many, some hard realizations set in about their own mortality and about time running out. Life becomes reappraised for many at this point, in terms of goals, accomplishments and experiences. Many are shocked at their physical appearance and have a difficult time dealing with it. As a result, sometimes mid-life crisis take over.

"For women, mid-life crisis is a time for an emerging identity, a freeing of the inner self as children reach a relative stage of greater independence." (p. 170) For those that spent their lives raising children, this period of time can be difficult as they mourn the passing of their offspring into adults, and if they had no established career or non-family interests. "Empty nest syndrome" may occur causing depression and listlessness. (p. 170) This may be followed by or coincide with menopause, compounding the problem.

Another component of middle adulthood is the phenomenon of sexual burnout, which may affect as many as 0% of people in the U.S. (p. 170) This stems from the same old sex routine. More than boredom, marked by a sense of physical depletion, emotional emptiness, and negative sexual self-concept. Sexual burnout is not the same as sexual lack of interest. Rather it is usually accompanied by depression.

"One intriguing finding has been noted about sex differences in the psychology of middle adulthood. Among those forty to fifty five year old men, are more apt to exhibit a strong sense of self confidence and control and typically engage in behavior geared to show power and proficiency, while women tend to be more dependant, passive, and lacking in confidence. By the late 50's however, a decided shift occurs." (p. 17)

With aging, women reach the end of their fertility, which is called menopause. First, there is a gradual decline in female reproductive capacity from age thirty on, although very gradual for the first ten years. Also, around thirty-five, abnormal menstrual cycles may begin as ovaries respond less efficiently to hormones from the pituitary gland. After forty, frequency of ovulation generally begins to decline. Around forty-eight to fifty-two menstrual flow stops altogether. However, menopause may only be established after one year without any menstruation. (p. 176)

Timing and symptoms vary by woman. Some may feel hot flashes, which affect 75-80% of women. Other changes include prolonged estrogen deficiency, causing women's vaginas to shrink and thin, loosening elasticity. Also, lessened lubrication may be an effect, causing painful intercourse. (p. 176)

There is disagreement about menopause's impact on female sexual behavior. Some studies suggest a decrease in sexual interest and possible loss of female orgasmic responsivity. While other studies report that sexual interest may actually increase. Discrepancies may be a result of inadequate research that don't take into account health issues, spouses or sexual partners. (p. 17)

Finally, in late adulthood, in the U.S., sex is regarded as something for the young and attractive. When some think of elderly in nursing homes in sexual acts, they cringe. However, despite our cultural myths, the psychological need for intimacy, excitement and pleasure does not disappear in old age, and nothing in biology of aging automatically shuts down sexual function. (p. 17)

Orgasm

Even if you think you know what an orgasm is, consider this Even researchers don't have a full grasp of it. " 'Nobody has offered a universally acceptable explanation for what finally triggers orgasm,' says Robert Birch, Ph.D. director of the Arlington Center for Marital and Sexual Concerns in Columbus, Ohio." (Bechtel, 1, p. 1) Masters and Johnson have proposed that all orgasms occur very similarly physically. They believe that orgasms are clitorally induced, with contractions occurring primarily in the outer third of the vagina. (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 18, p. 8.) Studies that compared the well-known physiological part of orgasm (such as muscular contractions) with all those wonderful feelings people have during orgasm, have found that the two don't necessarily correspond. (Bechtel, 1, p. ) One third of the women in a study swore they had an orgasm, although there was no such recordings of muscular contractions. They said they climaxed, but their body said otherwise.

Despite Masters and Johnson's theory, there is still enormous confusion over the terms "clitoral orgasm" and "vaginal orgasm". (Hite, 176, p. 5) There are several reasons for the clitoral-vaginal controversy. One is that women lack complete understanding of their sexual anatomy. Women should know that the clitoris itself is merely a visible tip to a vast system of sexually responsive female tissue. In fact, "even when fully engorged, the clitoral system as a whole overshadows the clitoral glands and shaft in the ratio of almost thirty to one." (p. 8) The total engorgement of the clitoral system may actually be larger than the obvious male engorgement. Although the location of the orgasmic spasms occur in and around the vagina and deep pelvic region, which has helped to create the myth that there are two distinct types of orgasms, the clitoris acts as the sensory arm to the entire system. Clinical evidence points to the clitoris that produces orgasms. (p. 8)

Another reason for this controversy is the phallocentric view that continues to follow orgasm during intercourse, orgasm feels much better than orgasm without intercourse. (p. ) But according to the many women surveyed by Shere Hite in The Hite Report (176, p. 10), "with the presence of the penis, the orgasm and contractions are felt less concretely, and that the 'vaginal ache' as well is either soothed or not felt during intercourse." Basically, the penis seems to have more of a soothing or diffusing effect.

Possibly a continuation of this Phallocentric view is that of the G-Spot, which has been more of an enigma than a definite anatomical feature. What started the ruckus, of whether or not the G-Spot (Grafenberg spot) exists, was the 18 book called The G-Spot and Other Recent Discoveries about Human Sexuality. (Bechtel, 1, p. 140) These researchers had rediscovered an article by Ernst Grafenberg, M.D., (150), in which he described a small area on the upper wall of the vagina that- at least in some women- was so erotically charged that it could produce an orgasm. These researchers supported Grafenberg's theory, by reporting that many women who were sensitive to the G-spot stimulation would ejaculate a clear fluid during orgasm. However, the more modern view is that there appears to be no concrete evidence that such a spot even exists. Some noted sex specialists, such as Loyola University psychiatry professor Domeena C. Renshaw, M.D., have concluded that, at least until better evidence is presented, 'the G-spot must remain unacceptable as a scientific fact.'" (p. 14) Since there has been no definite evidence presented, perhaps the origination of the G-spot is more to support a phallocentric view of female sexuality, which supports the notion that the penis is needed for stimulation.

So what do orgasms feel like for women? As documented by The Hite Report (176, p. 65), it appears no one dislikes arousal. Some questionnaire respondents said, "Orgasm is a feeling of warmth, first, all over me. In fact, my general mood and the atmosphere around me before sexual activity begins is a great part of the buildup of this warm or excited feeling. After the general warmth comes tension in my legs (particularly thighs), my abdomen, and of course, my breasts and genitals. My clitoris feels very 'tingly'. I feel very strong before orgasm and my 'insides' seem to be alive and powerful. The moisturizing heat, and strength are all very satisfying. Sometimes my buttocks and pelvis feel the need to be very frenzied and move a lot, and sometimes I feel more like pushing strongly against something with my pelvis and legs. The orgasm itself reminds me of a dam breaking. I can feel contractions inside me and a very liquid sensation. The best part is the continuing waves of build-up and release during multiple orgasms." (p. 65)

"A feeling of being loved and wanted. Exhilarating!" (p. 66)

"A sense of well-being, I am radiant, like a gradual awakening."

For each woman, the experience may be different. "Searching for one 'right' model of women's orgasm does not reflect the diversity of experiences that women have." (The Boston Women's Health Book Collection, 18, p. 8)

Technology of Orgasm Hysteria Pathology

"Hysteria" comes from the Greek meaning "That which proceeds from the uterus", basically associating hysteria with femininity. (Maines, 11, p. 1) Hysteria (literally, " womb disease") was considered to be common and chronic in women, due to sexual depravation. "In 165, Pieter Van Foreest published a medical compendium titled Observationem et Curationem Medicinalium ac Chirurgicarum Opera Omnia, with a chapter on the diseases of women." (Maines, 1, p. 1) Basically, this book stated that when hysteria occurs in women, due to a lack of sexual stimulation, it is necessary to message genitalia to arouse the woman to relieve her of this hysteria. This was a staple among western physicians and was practiced from the time of Hippocrates until the 10's. (p. )

"Demand for treatment had two sources 1. Proscription on female masturbation as unchaste and possibly unhealthful . Failure of androcentrically defined sexuality to produce orgasms regularly in most women." (p. ) This androcentric model defines sex with three steps preparation for penetration, penetration, and male orgasm. (p. 5) As one may notice, there is nothing within this model that expects women to reach orgasm during intercourse. Although they were expected to, it was not necessary, and was still considered "real sex".

Traditionally, possibly more than 70% of women do not reach orgasm by means of penetration. (p. 5) Therefore, when marital sex was unsatisfying, and since masturbation was forbidden, the so-called signs of "hysteria" came through.

Symptoms of hysteria were characterized by medical authorities as including chronic anxiety, sleeplessness, irritability, nervousness, erotic fantasy, sensations of heaviness in the abdomen, lower pelvic edema, and vaginal lubrication. (p. 8)

Since this "disease" couldn't be treated in the bedroom, doctors begin taking over the task of relieving symptoms. Physicians didn't enjoy providing pelvic massages. The male elite sought every opportunity to substitute other devices for fingers such as husband's attentions, hands of a midwife, or a mechanism. (p.4) The mechanism ended up reducing the amount of time needed to perform the task (up to one hour and ten minutes).

Doctors, at the time, were male elite, wanting to be more efficient in medical production of orgasms so they could increase their income. Due to the increased demand for more rapid physical therapies to cure "hysteria", and as an extension of previous message technologies, the vibrator emerged at the end of the 1th century. (p. )

Let's keep in mind patients never recovered or died from the so-called condition. We also must not perceive them as victims, because some of them had to have known what was going on. (p. 4)

"In the first two decades of 100, the vibrator began to be marked as a home appliance through advertising in periodicals, Needlecraft, Home Needlework Journal, Modern Women, Hearst's, McClure's, Woman's Home Companion, and Modern Priscilla." (p. 1) These vibrators were marked as health and relaxation aid, and were also marketed to men as a gift for women, restoring bright eyes and pink cheeks. There were a variety of models and prices.

In the 10's, the true vibrator gradually disappeared from doctors' offices and from respectable households. This may have been a result of the greater understanding of women's sexuality by physicians, the appearance of vibrators in stag films in the 0's or both. (p. 1)

When the vibrator reemerged during the 160's, it was no longer considered a medical instrument, rather a sex aid on the open market to consumers. A major selling point for vibrators was the efficacy in producing orgasms. These instruments gave women the power to pleasure themselves, which was the job apparently no one else wanted.

Beyond the functional role of the vibrator for women consumers and sexual partners, it is also being worshiped as a "cure-all". (p. 1) Some male authors and therapists find it makes excellent additions to couple's sex toy collections. Also, finding that is produced orgasm in some women with little effort and skill. Women with high orgasmic thresholds usually will eventually respond to vibrating massage. Those women with low orgasmic thresholds can explore full orgasmic potential.

Vibrators have caused male fears over the years. Today, jokes are made about the use of vibrators. "When did God make men? When she realized that vibrators couldn't dance too." (p. 1) Many men have become quite resentful of the instrument.

Masturbation

Fortunately, today, the meaning of "hysterical" is "upset to the point of irrationality." (Maines, 11, p. 1) It has changed from being a scientific situation of illness, to more general influences to uncontrolled, usually frivolous emotions. However, the fact still remains, "It has been clinically noted, that women do not reach orgasm during coitus as readily as men do, and sustained stimulation of the clitoris is usually required to reliably produce an orgasm." (p. 48) However, many women can reach orgasm during masturbation. Therefore suggesting that sexual intercourse in an extremely inefficient way to stimulate the clitoris.

Western history has established the sexual norm by medical professionals that penetration to male orgasm is the ultimate thrill for both partners. This leads to strong cultural motivations to deny contrary evidence. This failure has many effects such as assuming healthy women desire penetration, and men who penetrate are essentially doing women a favor, and finally, women who desire sexual activity outside of a male relationship are considered flawed, sinful and sick.

Additionally, remains the assumption that women are slower than men to become aroused and have less orgasmic potential. However, "empirical studies have shown that women are not slower than men to become aroused and satisfied, and that their orgasmic potential is much greater than that of males." (p. 4) In 184, Carol Tavirs and Carole Wade pointed out that "during masturbation, especially with an electric vibrator, some women can have as many as fifty consecutive orgasm."(p. 4)

In our culture, it is accepted that people should not masturbate, especially women. It is, however, acceptable for women to enjoy sex as long as they are fulfilling their roles as women- giving pleasure to men. But we need to keep in mind, the purpose of masturbation is to love and care for ourselves completely, and being able to relate to our bodies.

Shere Hite wrote The Hite Report, which as previously stated, surveyed over 100,000 women from age 14 up to 78 about sexuality. One of the most important subjects she included was that of masturbation, since it is an easy source of orgasm for most women. "Of the 8% of women who said they masturbated, 5% could orgasm easily and regularly whenever they wanted." (Hite, 176, p. ) This certainly contradicts the stereotype that women are slow to orgasm, and do so irregularly.

From the point of view of orgasm, the key to understanding female sexuality is to understand masturbation. Hite's book was basically a collection of women's feelings and experiences with regards to sexuality, and masturbation in particular, which gave women a clear description what other women felt and did. Reading other females' comments on masturbation, can really act to empower women in regards to owning their feelings. Most women, in her book, state that they enjoy masturbation physically, not psychologically. Below are some of the comments that were included

"I enjoy masturbating. The physical stimulation and the orgasm is nice, but often I fell ashamed afterwards like there is something wrong with me because I should have a man to do this anytime I want and I don't." (p. 6)

"I like to masturbate physically. I used to feel a little guilty (or frigid) psychologically but not any more. It always leads to orgasm. It's more intense alone but it lasts longer with someone. I usually have about eight when masturbating. There was much guilt involved with my early masturbation. As mother always sneaked around on tiptoe trying to catch me at it." (p. )

There are other women who could not even let themselves enjoy masturbation and refuse to do it. And there are those who completely enjoy the activity without any guilt. Hopefully, in the future, women will feel they have the right to enjoy masturbation. To touch, explore, and enjoy our their bodies in a way they desire, not only alone, but with someone else is a natural part of life, just as the need for food, water, warmth, and love are.

Conclusion

Looking back on the evolution of sexual attitudes and behavior in America over the last twenty-five years or so, is quite amazing. We have come a long way from where we started back during the industrial revolution, a time of sexual repression. During the 150's, although sex was still a taboo to speak of, scientists began to open our eyes to understanding our sexuality. Over the years, as more and more women become involved in the process, rather than continuing the ignorant assumption that men know what's best, the truth is beginning to come out.

There are many things that have acted to aid in the process of exploring female sexuality and hopefully will continue to expand, and become widely accepted. Increasing sex education for our children, leads the way to fuller understanding of our growth and development both physically and mentally as human beings, and an increased acceptance of others and our differences. Also, recognizing the importance of sexual pleasure through orgasm, as a natural process, is critical in becoming happy, and healthy women. Additionally, exploring our bodies and our potential for arousal should not be thought of as dirty, or sinful, rather it is an action of caring and loving ourselves, and may be shared with companions.

I am hopeful that over the years, this trend towards greater acceptance and increased understanding of female sexuality will continue to expand. It seems very likely, that down the road we can expect a lessening of the restraints imposed on sexual behavior, and a more open-minded approach to sexual attitudes. We must work towards destroying the double standard myths and eliminating the shackles that bind us to sexual roles. Although we have begun to gradually move in this direction, it is only through open and effective communication that our journey will progress in the right direction.

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