The Media Pertaining to Woman

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INTRODUCTION

In studying communications, I have taken interest in the effects the media may have on the human psyche. Being a woman, I concentrated on the discrimination and under representation of women that is evident in the media. Focus has been specifically made on the effects that stereotypes and under-representations of women on television have on the typical viewer. It is the intent of this paper to prove that the media, through television programs, exhibits and enforces specific gender stereotypes to the general public and affects the public's views on gender norms and behaviour.

The issue of gender stereotypes and discrimination against women on television is important on a global and personal level. Men and women around the world are expected to dress, think and behave in ways dictated to them by the programs that they view on television. These views are enforced by an elite few who demand that they public obey their beliefs by controlling our source of entertainment. This issue is also important on a personal level because gender stereotyping inhibits the way I must act and behave as a woman. The media presents the public with only two possible genders, male and female, forcing them to associate with only one (out of a possible four) . Anyone who chooses a gender other than male or female is looked upon as a deviation from the norm. My objective is to focus on the way in which the media presents women and how it has such an immense effect on how they identify themselves as such.

In order to provide evidence supporting my hypothesis, this paper will include articles from Volumes 0 and 6 of The Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. Research is presented regarding women on television in the following articles 'Perceptions of the Traits of Women on Television' by Rita Atwood, and 'Prime Time Pilots A Content Analysis of Changes in Gender Representation' by David Vest. Nelson and Robinson's text, Gender in Canada has also been selected in furthering my study of the portrayal of women in television.

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JOURNAL/TEXT REPORT

In her study, Rita Atwood conducted open-ended interviews among adult television viewers in order to report the diverse opinions and interpretations that were made. This study aimed to gain greater insight on the standards that audience members employ when regarding images of women on television and the factors that are associated with the differences in standards. The audience members were to categorize whether the women's roles viewed were either 'positive' or 'negative'. The audience was allowed to provide their own definitions of which traits were positive and which were negative. "Telephone interviews were completed with residents of 6 households, 154 women and 10 men ranging in age from 17 to 7." (Atwood, 6) Analyses of the open-ended responses involved a development of specific 'positive' and 'negative' categories and coding by authors.

Positive assessments of women were linked to the following trait categories in the following percentages 6.7% of respondents found that women were determined, strong and independent; 5.7% of respondents found that women were professional, intelligent and skilled; .8% of respondents found that women were traditional, care-taking and feminine. Negative assessments of women, however, were linked to the following trait categories in the following percentages 4.% of respondents saw women portrayed as the silly housewife, dumb blonde or sex object; 6.% of respondents found that women were immoral, selfish, aggressive or evil; 0.5% of respondents found that women were exploited, degraded and dependant. (Atwood, 8-) A significant finding with regards to Atwood's research was that the majority of responses reflected a 'contemporary' basis for evaluating characteristics of women on television. For example, most respondents classified women on television as positive because of their strength, intelligence and ability to be professional, while women on television were described as negative because they are shown as weak, exploited victims, demented housewives, or sex objects. The minority of answers given by respondents was based around a 'traditional' basis for evaluation. For example, in this grouping women were seen as positive because they were attractive, moral and caretakers, while they were seen as negative because they were selfish, immoral or aggressive. The placing of the aforementioned traits in their 'positive' and 'negative' groupings presents the 'Madonna-whore' complex that was so largely regarded in the past. The study also found that women and men did not differ greatly on their opinions of positive and negative traits for women in television. "In sum, these results offer support for the assertion that people actively construct meaning from their message environments, and that they are uniquely qualified for and capable of providing useful insight into such experiences." (Atwood, 100)

In this study, David Vest explores the degree to which the production and re-write process is responsible for the limited portrayal of women in television. It was assumed that early versions of scripts had a high presence of women, which deteriorated as the scripts were reorganized towards conventionalization. (Vest, 7) A set of forty programs were identified as being the population of television programs which premiered during the 186-87 television season, however, only twenty one sets of scripts were made available to coders (one undergraduate communication major and two graduate communications majors). The study had to be arranged in groups according to included and non-included shows and 'proven' and 'unproven' producers. "Unproven producers were involved with eight non-included and ten included programs, while proven producers were responsible for eleven included and eleven non-included programs. The changes looked for in the episodes were sex, age, occupation, marital status and scenes. Six, three part hypotheses were made in order to conduct the study.

The hypotheses and their results are as follows

Hypothesis #1- Men will outnumber women in the shooting version of the scripts. The ratio of men to women will be lower in the early version of the scripts. The shift toward under-representation will be larger in programs produced by relatively untested producers. The results of this hypothesis were that proportion of men to women in the shooting script was approximately to 1 in both early and shooting scripts. Furthermore, regardless of producer status, the under-representation of women remained constant.

Hypothesis #- Compared to men, women will have smaller roles in the shooting scripts. This difference will be less pronounced in the earlier versions. The shift toward smaller roles will be less pronounced in the programs of established producers. The results of this hypothesis were that the difference between men and women in terms of role size was not different between early and shooting versions. Also, scripts by unproven producers were more likely to have larger roles for women than proven producers.

Hypothesis #- In the shooting version of the scripts, women will be shown less frequently than men in single-sex scenes. This difference in single-sex scenes will be less in the early version of the scripts. The shift toward a higher proportion of male single-sex scenes to female single-sex scenes will be less pronounced in the programs of established producers. The results of this hypothesis were that the ratio of all male scenes to all female scenes was to 1, but this did not significantly change between early and shooting versions. Moreover, there was no support that the status of the producer had any relationship to the changes made in the scripts.

Hypothesis #4- The age distribution for women will be narrower and younger than the age distribution for men in the shooting version of the scripts. These differences will be smaller in the early versions. The shift to a narrower and younger age distribution for women will be less pronounced in the programs of established producers. The results of this hypothesis explain that the "difference between ages according to status was consistent with the notion that the programs of proven producers offer less conventional fare (in this case, a less dramatic gap in the mean ages of men compared to women)." (Vest, 6) However, in both proven and unproven scripts, the mean age of women decreased from early to shooting versions.

Hypothesis #5 - The range of occupations for women will be narrower than the range of occupations for men, and these occupations will tend to cluster within traditional female spheres of activity in the shooting version of the scripts. This constraint will be less pronounced in the early version of the scripts. The shift toward constraint will be most evident in the programs produced by individuals without and established track record. When researching for this hypothesis, it was found that women were found in as many occupations as men, yet were involved in student or traditional female occupational categories, while men outnumbered women 5 to 1 in professional, powerful and traditionally male categories. In addition, there was no evidence supporting the claim that changes occurred between versions or because of producer track record.

Hypothesis #6- Marital status will be a more evident and central feature for women than for men in the shooting version of the scripts. The differences in marital status between men and women will be less pronounced in the early version of the scripts. The change in focus will be most clearly noted in the work of unproven producers. As hypothesized, the marital status of women was more evident than the marital status of men in the shooting version of scripts. However, there was little change in the early or shooting versions and no evidence supporting that proven producers would change towards a more balanced representation of men and women.

Thus, although it was proved that women are, indeed, under-portrayed in television, there was no evidence to support the claims that early and shooting versions of scripts were altered and that proven producers were responsible for eliciting a change among these versions.

In Gender in Canada, Nelson and Robinson claim that the media often misrepresents or fails to represent women because of gender role stereotypes and socialization. Gender role stereotypes are structured sets of beliefs about the personal attributes of men and women and contain notions of qualities possessed by individuals who belong to a particular manifestation of society.

Television has perpetuated and reinforced traditional stereotypes of men and women. Children's television shows feature more males than females, although females are the primary caregivers in most households. In prime time, male characters outnumber female characters two to one, with male characters more likely to hold high status positions. "Content analysis research reveals that men represent 65.4 percent of all prime time television characters and are more likely to be cast in dramatic roles. Women, in contrast, are not only less visible, but are also found primarily in comedies, implicitly suggesting that they are not to be taken very seriously." (Nelson and Robinson, 1) Males are typically cast as adventurous, aggressive and heroic figures who rescue others from danger and females are cast as submissive and passive characters. Even young children are gender typed boys are more assertive, rational and sarcastic, while girls are always on the phone, reading magazines or helping with household chores.

Nelson and Robinson (pg. 1) point out eleven main types of female characters i) the Imp rebellious and rowdy; ii) the Goodwife a beneficent character; iii) the Harpy an aggressive, single women; iv) the Bitch a strong-willed, self absorbed, and destructive woman; v) the Victim a woman suffering from pain, injury, imprisonment, or disease; vi) the Decoy described as 'bait in chic clothing'; vii) the Siren sexy and sinister; viii) the Courtesan a female entrepreneur/clotheshorse; ix) the Witch a woman portrayed as having some form of special power; x) the Matriarch a competent, brave and socially prominent older woman; and xi) the Androgyne a strong, autonomous female who combines both masculine and feminine traits and behaviours. In the 10'sthe role of the androgyne has become more popular with roles such as Murphy Brown, Xena, and Dana Scully.

Although advances are being made "Meehan claims that 'As we approach the turn of the century, despite massive real-world changes in gender roles, the world of television persists in…stereotyped and sexist images.'" (Nelson and Robinson, p. 14) Women, however, are not under represented in the world of soap operas, and they are not restricted to a life of domesticity, but one of intrigue, adventure and romance. Women may become important and powerful in business, but their careers tend to be in areas that are gender-appropriate (business worlds of fashion, cosmetics or hospitality). Women are often depicted as acquiring this power through their ties to powerful men, or in exercising their devious qualities. Images of men rescuing the interests of weaker females reinforce the stereotypes of women's unsuitability for the high-pressure world of business. Also, women who demonstrate stereotypical femininity are often presented as being morally superior to those who are more masculine. Strong women who are successful, assertive, and highly determined to survive without men are portrayed as villains.

One surely can argue that television is merely for entertainment and should not be taken seriously but that argument lacks strong supporting evidence. Media, specifically television, has an immense effect on how the women (and men) identify with their gender. Roles are neatly categorized into masculine and feminine and characters are played out as such by through fictitious sitcoms. This, in turn, has a direct influence on how people identify with their own gender, through examples of popular sitcoms and television in general a distorted image of women is on a slow route to a positive change. Please note that this sample paper on The Media Pertaining to Woman is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Media Pertaining to Woman, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Media Pertaining to Woman will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Down the great unknown

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Down The Great Unknown

May 11, 186. A group of roughnecks gather in the dust bucket of Green River, Wyoming, waiting for their one-armed leader to take them down the last great mystery of the western United States; the Grand Canyon. 5-year-old John Wesley Powell arrives by train with four flat-bottomed, flat-ended boats with which the team will negotiate the uncharted waters of the Green and Colorado Rivers. They bring with them 10 months worth of coffee, flour, and other provisions for what will ultimately end up being about three months worth of traveling. Powell set out in hopes to chart and map the Grand Canyon in its entirety. The only way of doing this was by boat via the Colorado. The other men were mostly just looking for an adventure. These were knowledgeable, capable adventurers who seemed like they would be beyond Powell's control, but for the most part, these men never questioned their leader.

For the crew, the adventure began on May 4, when the boats were launched into the river, but for Powell, the journey started two years before when he had first visited the Grand Canyon during a field trip for his geology class at Illinois Wesleyan. He was amazed by the beauty of the canyon and was almost immediately set on charting the area for him and others. Soon after, he began partitioning the U.S. Government for a grant to explore the Grand Canyon, but was denied. Powell sought funding elsewhere, asking friends, acquaintances, and friend's acquaintances for donations for the trip. Eventually he gained enough money, along with his life savings, to fund his ideal journey.

The Grand Canyon was a geologist's dream. It was filled with rich history of the Earth and the changes it has undergone throughout the course of its existence. Though Powell had brought with him dozens of measuring tools, the shape, color and layers of rock told a story to the naked eye. Powell had also found a great deal of evidence of cave dwellers and other inhabitants of the area.

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Powell's interests were not just anthropological, though. He was also a man seeking to make a name for himself in the history of the United States. As a Civil War veteran, he exuded bravery and determination. He had his right arm shattered by a cannon ball at the Battle of Shiloh, and after several surgeries, his arm was amputated. But losing an arm did not stop him from earning the rank of Major after returning to the service for another three years. Being a veteran, though, was not enough for Powell, he wanted more for himself, and thought that exploring the most mysterious part of the United States would surely bring him that recognition. On May 4, Powell and his crew left from Green River, Wyoming. The trip started off being a journey of science and careful measurements, but would soon become a tale of survival.

The early parts of the river were somewhat easy to negotiate, - men per boat was the perfect number to power and steer through rather mild rapids. This was the case for about the first 70-75 miles of the river. It took them about two weeks to get that far, but around 80 miles; the trip had its first major episode.

The team was negotiating a series of difficult rapids when one of the boats suddenly hit a rock and shattered into pieces. The team lost one third of their food supply and a great deal of instruments. To add to the difficulty, the two boats had to take on an extra person, making it crewmembers per boat. Powell blamed the two members of the boat for not listening to his commands. This added an unwanted element to their journey; blame. This would foreshadow events to come and the overall feel of the journey. From that point on, crewmembers had remained in low spirits for rest of the journey. That was the point where Powell realized that there was a possibility of failing his mission, and failure was his greatest fear. Powell from that point on changed his policy about shooting rapids.

Although going through rapids was sometimes beneficial, (the team could gain miles much faster than slower parts of the river), if there was a rapid that Powell thought was too risky to run, he would command the crew to portage the boats and carry the boats and supplies around the rapids. One crewmember, George Bradley remarked that losing one of the boats and some rations was a positive change in the trip. "We have plenty of rations left, much more than we care to carry around the rapids, especially when they are more than a mile long."

Another element of the journey that negatively affected the crew was that due to poor care for the food rations, water had gotten to them and it mold took over a large portion of the food. By the end of the trip the crew was on less than half rations of food. They didn't necessarily need to be on half rations because the trip was much shorter than that for which they had prepared, but it was still a safe, smart move on behalf of the Powell and the crew.

At one point, all that was left was flour; the crew was reduced to eating dough balls. These conditions led to even more discontent among the men. The sentiment among the crew of the members was so intense that one night at camp, three crewmembers announced that they were going to climb out of the canyon and try to find their way to civilization. At this point, the crew was deep in the Colorado River, thus in uncharted territory. Any town or settlement would be miles away; it was almost certain death. Despite Powell's pleas, the men left on foot the next morning with a letter to Powell's wife and half of the records kept throughout the trip. The men were never seen again and it is theorized that Native Americans killed them. This occurred on the 7th day, two days before the team made it out of the Grand Canyon.

After the journey was over, Powell never saw the remaining crewmembers again. I think that was due to the tension that was created throughout the trip. Powell had ordered the men around and they obeyed without question, but they were becoming more and more agitated with every order they followed.

Originally, the crew was in this adventure merely for the excitement aspect of it. They were not geologists or great explorers or looking to get rich, they had been doing things of this sort for their entire lives. Some of the men were civil war veterans and others were just drifters. I am not sure if taking the trip was worth doing for the crew. They certainly gained a new experience and did have an adventure, but they received very little if any recognition for their efforts. For the three that fled the expedition, the mission was a horrible tragedy. These poor men only had 48 hours left of misery to endure with Powell before they could say goodbye to him forever, instead they said goodbye forever. For the men that completed it, the completion in itself was worth doing, but I feel that they walked away from the experience with a negative outlook.

Powell, on the other hand, accomplished more and less than what he expected. The disappointment for him was that he did not chart the entire Grand Canyon. This was due to losing instruments in the first boat crash and giving a large portion of the records to the three who skipped out on the trip. Some instruments were also ruined from water damage. The most important factor in not being able to chart the river was the fact that for a long time, the crew was scrambling merely to survive. Recording the journey had become secondary to staying alive. This seemed to be the only negative aspect of completing the journey for Powell.

When Powell returned he had found that he was a national hero. For months, rumors had been circling around the newspapers that the mission had failed when the crew was sucked into a whirlpool; Powell was living proof that that didn't happen. He was finally the center of attention, a legend in his own time.

He was even recognized by the government. John received a $10,000 grant from Congress to lead more expeditions into the Grand Canyon. In 1871, he led the second expedition into the "somewhat known". During this time, he put inauthentic headdresses on the Native Americans and took pictures of them to sell to raise money for further western exploration. In 1874, Powell published a book in which embellished his original account of his trip down the Grand Canyon.

He was also made director of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian. This position mainly pertained to the government's policy towards Native Americans, a group of people with whom Powell was especially fascinated. Powell was also named the director of the United States Geological Survey, a bureau dedicated to exploring and mapping the western United States.

For Powell, the experience was more than worthwhile. He got what he had always wanted, being the recognition of others. On a less obvious level though, John gained a sense of pride for himself. He had done something that no one else had ever done. In this respect, he knew that never giving up paid off. He had proven that someone with a major disability such as a broken arm could accomplish a feat unparalleled by anyone with two arms had ever done.

Adventure. This could possibly be one of the vaguest words in the English language. An adventure could be something in that was began with a specific purpose, like mapping the uncharted waters of the Colorado River. Or the adventure could be unintentional and unexpected, like hearing a pop from the back of your car and having to pull over to the side of the road to fix it yourself. If this is your first time, than it can very well be an adventure. The previous adventures described are both of the physical sorts, but there are also those that are mental. For instance learning to and or making oneself use a style of writing or motivating oneself to do something.

Before going into what types of adventures there are, it is important to define what elements make up an adventure. In every adventure, those people involved must have some sort of struggle. If a math major that has never climbed a mountain tries to do it alone, he or she will most certainly encounter some kind of struggle. However, if a seasoned mountain guide tries to solve a complex equation he or she will encounter a struggle.

Another important part of an adventure is the moment in which the person participating who has encountered a seemingly impossible situation decides to do something about it to better their position. For instance, when the math major reaches an arm above his head and grabs the first hand hold and begins to pull himself up, he has reached a new level. This brings him to the next element of adventure, learning.

In my opinion it is impossible to go through an adventure without learning something. As soon as one encounters a struggle that was unanticipated, the person learns of a different element that is included in that adventure. After the struggle is over, or at least attempted, the person involved learns something about himself, the way in which he deals with a desperate situation.

Now that adventure has been defined, the inevitable question, WHY? There are literally millions of reasons why someone will embark on an adventure. Many common reasons relate to greed, glory, religion (proselytizing), necessity, and in Powell's case research. Some of these things though are not enough to motivate people to go on adventures.

There is always the theory that there is no reason to ever do anything in which one learns or does something out of the ordinary because we are all insignificant and will have no effect on the course of history. This may be true and it may not be. It is a concept with which I find myself struggling all of the time. An example is this very paper. I have read an entire book and watched movies and done research on this topic and for what? To get a good grade so I can pass and have a decent G.P.A. and go to college and get a job and retire when I'm 65 and support my family and die with a clear conscience. The point is that nothing is ever necessary, but without people going on adventures, our country would not exist, our way of life would be unimaginable, no one would ever go out of their way to do anything for anyone else, and for all intensive purposes, everyone would be in effect, dumber.

down the great unknown

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World War One

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The impact of the First World War is still with us. Adolph Hitler himself was a product of the First World War. World War I also gave Russian communists opportunity to overthrow the government in Russia and proclaim communism. The events that took place in No Mans Land definitely had an impact on the wars to come.

The First World War had many causes. The spark of the Great War was the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, soon to be at the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife by a Serbian nationalist, while traveling through Sarajevo. The Archduke was chosen as a target because Serbians feared that after he was at the throne, he would continue the persecution of Serbs living within the Austria-Hungary Empire. The Serbian terrorist organization, the Black Hand, had to carry out the assassination.

The Arms Race is the second cause. Britain at that time was the largest empire in the world, and it also had the largest navy. The navy was so big and strong because the British needed to protect their empire and maintain the sea routes between the different colonies. Kaiser William of Germany hated and envied Britain for having a stronger navy than his. He increased the German navy and built many warships. Britain responded with building more ships and increasing its navy too. This started a race for building more and better warships and it created tension and competition between those two countries.

The systems of alliance were another major cause of the War. There was a feud between France and Germany about controlling the colonies, which leads to a greater conflict, the Great War. Europe at that time was divided into two rival alliance systems Triple Entente that included Great Britain, France, and Russia and the Triple Alliance, which included the Central Powers of Austria- Hungary, Germany, and eventually the Turkish Empire. In order to balance the power, France and Russia signed an alliance. Russia saw itself as the protector of Slavs in the war, and immediately mobilized. When the war began, the German decision that if they were going to have to fight Russia and France, they would strike at France first according to the Schlieffen Plan, and then turn West to Russia. Germans believed that Russia at the time was unprepared for war, and that it will take a long time for Russia to mobilize its army. So, on July 8, 114, Austria declared war against Serbia. Russia responded by partially mobilizing against Austria as a protector of Slavs, and Germany insisted that Russia immediately demobilize. Russia refused to do so, and so declared war on Russia and France. When war was declared in August people involved on all sides felt that it would be a short war, and will be over by Christmas. In order for Germany to accomplish its Schlieffen Plan, Germany occupied Belgium. By August most of Belgium was under German occupation and the Schlieffen Plan appeared to be going well, but it brought Britain into the war because they had made a treaty with Belgium before, and Schlieffen Plan involved the invasion of Belgium.

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One of the other major causes during the War was new weapons. In other words military commanders were not quite ready to the war with its modern weapons and new technologies such as machine guns, also the men built trenches that ran 500 miles. The First World War was the first war to use poison gas as a military weapon. Germans also had the first submarines and used them to blockade Britain by sinking British ships. The sinking of Lusitania is the famous example of sub-warfare during World War I. The Lucitania had civilians on board, where 100 passengers were American citizens. After sinking Lusitania a letter was sent to the German Government by President Wilson to warn the German government against killing Americans citizens. The total war started when Germans used their first gas attack. Gassing was the start of total war.

The dispute between the United States and Germany was more serious because, to me, it was a turning point in the war that would put an end to the stalemate warfare. In order to prevent food, munitions, and other supplies from reaching Great Britain, Germany in 115 declared the waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland a war zone in which German submarines would sink all enemy vessels without the visit or search ordered by international law. To avoid the possibility that uninvolved vessels might be sunk by mistake, or that uninvolved might be killed, Germany warned uninvolved ships not to enter the zone. They also advised citizens of uninvolved nations not to travel on ships of the Allied nations. Germany remained intolerant in the face of U.S. protests against this declaration. In May 115 a German submarine torpedoed the British passenger liner Lusitania off the Irish coast without warning, causing the deaths of 118 people, of whom 18 were U.S. citizens. The Germans claimed that the Lusitania was carrying munitions to Britain, and later research has proven this to be true. But the American public was outraged by the sinking, and strong protests by the U.S. State Department brought a promise from Germany not to sink any passenger liners without taking precautions to protect the lives of civilians.

However the conflict between Germany and the United States would come to an end just yet. The Zimmermann telegram would be the "spark" that would ignite the tensions between Germany and the United States. The telegram was sent January 17, 117 from Germany to Mexico. The telegram was received and inspected in London, England. As soon as the telegram was read by the English government, they sent the telegram to the United States government. When President Woodrow Wilson received the telegram, he quickly declared war on Germany and the Central Powers.

After a year of the United States Fighting in the war, World War One finally came to a close after four years of fighting. The Allied powers were the victors in this "Great War". The allied powers soon set up the Treaty of Versailles. In the peace settlement Germany was forced to accept sole responsibility for causing World War I. This was a totally justifiable demand on the part of the victorious powers.

The Treaty of Versailles was issued in June 11 with Germany forced to accept sole responsibility for causing World War I. Since then there has been considerable debate concerning the war but even today historians still cannot fully agree upon the causes. Some support has been given to the theory that Germany was totally responsible for the war however substantial evidence does not support that view. Therefore the insistence by the victorious Allied powers to include in the Treaty that Germany accepts total blame cannot be justified. For example, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by Serbian terrorist groups was one event that led to actual war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Another event could be when Russia starts to mobilize for war. So in other words, I believe that Germany should not have accepted full responsibility. However, Germany was weak and could not afford to go through another war. So since it was "cornered" it had to take full responsibility and sign.

However there was another opinion and resolution which was much less harsher than the Treaty of Versailles. President Wilson believed that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh for Germany. In view of this, Wilson created fourteen points that he wanted accomplished in full as a result of the peace treaties. His fourteen points were his plan for a world peace and included plans for the end of secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, arms reduction, the just settlement of colonial claims, the establishment of a League of Nations, and the evacuation of occupied territories and national self-determination. Many of his points were carried out in the Treaty of Versailles, although not all of them were successful or followed completely.

Wilsons fourth point in his plan was the reduction of national armaments. He stated that there should be adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments [would] be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. In the Treaty of Versailles, it was stated that the German army was to be limited to 100,000 and that Germany was not allowed to draft its citizens or to have an air force. Also, Germany was no longer allowed to operate submarines because of the unrestricted submarine warfare that they had displayed during the war, and their naval ships were limited in size and in the amount that they were permitted to own. Furthermore, the Rhineland was to be permanently disarmed and occupied by the Allies for fifteen years to ensure that there would be no attacks against France that might start another war. In addition to this, it was stated that Germany would never be allowed to unite with Austria because they would form an incredibly strong fighting force. This resulted in much complaining by the Germans on the account that they believed they were being left without a military force significant enough to protect themselves. Also, the treaty did not require any of the other countries to perform even the slightest demilitarization. After a certain point, the Germans found ways to avoid the law, and when Hitler came to reign he defied them completely by beginning to draft citizens again, building the status of the navy and air force, and he also began the construction of submarines again. He went so far in his power that he was even able to annex Austria. Even though Wilsons point had been made a part of the treaty, it was a failure because of Hitlers actions and because the rules were difficult to enforce. The result of the laws not being enforced was the beginning of World War Two.

The fifth point of the presidents was the just settlement of colonial claims. He stated that a free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principal that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government . . . should be decided upon. It was decided in the settlement in Paris that Alsace and Lorraine would be given to France as they had lost these territories in 1871. Eupen and Malmdy would be given to Belgium as compensation for their sufferings that they went through during the war. Popular vote was to decide what would happen to Schleswig, just as a plebiscite was also to determine Upper Siberias future. Some of Germanys eastern territory was moved in order to give Poland a direct route to the Baltic, as this was promised to Poland from Wilsons plan. Also, under the League of Nations, Danzig became a free city. Germany was also required to surrender all of its other colonies to place outside of Europe, which was not part of Wilsons 14 points. Although Wilsons wish to have the colonies distributed was granted, the results or reasons for how the colonies were dispersed were not what he had stated in his points. For example, the parts of eastern Germany should not have been distributed because it diminished its self-determination and divided the country in two. In addition to this, many of the territories that were ceded to other places were done so in compensation or revenge against Germany. Furthermore, there were many Germans who lived in Danzig and the Corridor. This led to arguments over these territories, which gave Germany sufficient reason to invade Poland, cutting off that countrys access to the Baltic Sea. Since the welfare of the people living in many of the distributed territories was not considered before they were distributed, much unrest occurred and was another cause that eventually led to World War Two.

The American presidents fourteenth point was to establish a League of Nations, which would serve as an organization for international peacemaking. He stated that a general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. It was agreed in the Treaty of Versailles that the Covenant of the League of Nations promote international co-operation . . . peace and security. The League was established but it did not have a large amount of power, and it didnt function well enough to prevent international problems from occurring, or to resolve them when they occurred. Also, the USA refused to join, which meant that the parliament went against the presidents wishes because they did not want the country that they had fought so hard for to have independence to be bound internationally again. In this way, Wilson was successful in establishing a League of Nations; however, he was not successful in convincing his own country to join or in having the organization have a sufficient amount of power to be considered a strongly influential force internationally.

Although Wilson wished to create a mild peace with Germany, the Treaty of Versailles twisted his points into forms of punishment and revenge against Germany. Wilson wished to have all places go through an arms reduction, while the treaty required that only Germanys army was restricted, leaving them with almost no defense forces of their own. He had also wished that the colonies would be spread equally and with consideration for those who lived in them, however the lives of the people were not taken into consideration and the results were that Germany was divided into two while many territories were returned to their original owners, which created much unrest. In addition to this, he had wished to create a League of Nations to conduct mutual guarantees of politics and territory and to maintain international peace. He could not convince his own country to join this, and the League itself, even though it was formed, held no real power and could efficiently deal with international problems. It was in this way that Wilsons fourteen points were compromised in the Treaty of Versailles, and many of the parts that were accomplished were not abided by or caused problems later on.

France, England, and the other powers could not and did not agree to Wilson's fourteen points. They believed that they did not fight four years and lose so much to compromise with Germany. They wanted to see Germany suffer greatly. So they agreed to make Germany sign the Treaty of Versailles.

The effects of The Great War may still be in our and European countries today. Most of the immediate effects might have been resolved in the years passed The Great War. However, after about three decades after World War One ended, another world war was about to begin. Please note that this sample paper on World War One is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on World War One, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on World War One will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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McDonalds

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Childbearing Controversy Abortion in America In the past twenty years, abortion rates have climbed significantly. More and more women are exercising their choice, and with it their rights, to have what has become the most common surgical procedure American women undergo (Tompkins 145). The simple operation is undertaken by one out of every five women over the age of 15, a quarter of which are teenagers. These 1.6 million women come from many disparate backgrounds, from all races, creeds, and classes, but they share one common trait for one reason or another, they feel unready for the burdens of motherhood. This bucking of the tradition of becoming a wife and mother alarms many conservatives, and so, as has any issue of import, abortion has become a highly political and emotionally charged topic. But though it is extremely controversial, when one takes into account the social, medical, and legal aspects it is strikingly apparent that women need the right to personally choose to have an abortion. Abortion became an outrage in this country only after the Civil War. It was then that the American Medical Association, seeking to bolster the authority of physicians over that of midwives, pushed for anti-abortion legislation to limit outside consultation (Garrett 18). Up to this point, abortion had been legal up until "quickening", or the first signs of movement in the womb (Lader 1). Nearly all state courts in the early to mid-nineteenth century had upheld this view that abortion with the woman's consent was not punishable by law. Far from the intended effect of increasing confidence in medical authority, however, the prohibition of abortion led many women to back-alley quacks, putting their lives in mortal peril from these homeopathic "surgeons". By seeking to reinforce their political standing, the AMA was actually endangering lives. Endangering the mother's life, however, seemed to be entirely acceptable to the so-called "moral majority". Right-wingers took up the anti-abortion flag in God's name, claiming the sanctity of life as their mantra. Pope Pius IX joined the fray as an outspoken critic of the procedure, a vocal foil to the necessarily silent sufferers. In 186 he issued his famous decree of the church's position, outlining their point of view condemning abortion. Their arguments hinged on three points of religious interpretation. First, and most weighty, that the fetus is a person and contains a soul. The Roman Catholic Church was a bit muddled on this point, as the official standpoint from the church's very inception up until the decree was that the fetus was not a person until late in the gestational cycle (Tompkins 145). Peter Singer also argues, "The life of a fetus is of no greater value than the life of a nonhuman animal at a similar level of rationality, self-consciousness, awareness, capacity to feel, etc." In addition, Singer infers that potential for rationality and the like is of no consequence in this view (Wennberg 8). Second, that because it contains a soul, it is a sin to destroy it. Third, that the conception of a child is contingent upon divine intervention and is therefore sacred, and humans should have no authority in the matter. Catholic priest George Patterson debunks this theory "Free will is only free within a divine framework. There would be no way to abort a pregnancy if God didn't allow it. (Furthermore) life is a gift of God, but conception is not a result of direct intervention. It is a human act (and) we have to take responsibility for that. And there may be times when responsibility involves terminating pregnancy" (Rosenblatt 168). Another point often overlooked in these proceedings was that the mother was often imperiled herself, through an inability to care for both herself and the child she carried, but the mission of the church was to stop the killing of "innocents", not of the sinners who would even consider the horror of abortion. Adding to the chaos surrounding abortion was the legal aspect. The United States does not constitutionally outlaw anything based on purely religious reasoning. Separation of church and state is guaranteed in the 1st Amendment, and Minister Mary Louise Smith concurs, "it is a religious issue, (and) that argues for leaving the thing alone entirely" (Rosenblatt 17). Many fanatics, as those mentioned above, do not understand the medical, psychological, or emotional aspects of abortion and are merely incensed by the idea. It is imprudent to continue any discussion of abortion without a full and comprehensive knowledge of what it entails. There are many different methods of aborting a pregnancy, though only two are widely used in the United States. The first is dilation and curettage, a simple procedure in which the surgeon cuts the fetal tissue away from the uterine lining. This accounts for most late-term (1th and 1th week) abortions. The second is vacuum aspiration, a more modern technique which uses medication to soften the fetal tissue, allowing the uterus to be emptied by small suction implements (Costa 50). Both procedures can be done in half an hour, and both share a high success rate with few complications. The most common side effect is heavy blood flow for a couple of days after the operation. Both, however, are also extremely invasive, and require a modicum of trust between doctor and patient. The answer to those wanting a more private, personal method seems to be in the form of a pill RU486. RU486 works by inhibiting progesterone production, causing the uterus to slough off its fertile lining. Also, without progesterone, the production of prostaglandins increases, softening the cervix and causing uterine contractions, facilitating the dislodging and expulsion of the embryo (Costa 114). Women who used the pill found it to be more comfortable, with no pain and little discomfort. Side effects are extremely limited, and the entire operation can be accomplished at home, with no need for a doctor. Use of RU486 allows a sense of responsibility and capability, and most patients were pleased with the results. This French pharmaceutical has long been the means of choice with doctors in Europe, and has been extensively tested and proved. Even the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, after reviewing thousands of trials, unofficially gave the pill its highest rating. But anti-abortion advocates denounce the drug, as it makes abortion a private matter, removing much of the need for public abortion clinics whose workers and patients can be targeted (Lader 8). So, with abortion arguments in America still at fevered pitch, the manufacturers have yet to apply for FDA approval. It is appropriate for religion and science to be at odds, and yet again conservative politicians fueled by unreasonable constituents block the entry of abortion pills and techniques into American hospitals. Even worse, funding that could be going to help distressed women is being diverted for fear of losing votes. Yet these legal battles, having begun in the mid-nineteenth century, are nothing new. The modern era of abortion-centered debate began with the Burger Court. The Supreme Court heard two cases in 17 crucial to the movement for abortion rights. The first was Doe v. Bolton, concerning a Georgia anti-abortion law. In this case the majority decided for the plaintiff, establishing a right to personal privacy in such matters. The right to personal liberty guaranteed by the 14th Amendment was also cited in the court's decision (Goode 171). Overshadowed by the later Roe v. Wade, Doe laid the groundwork for abortion rights. It is interesting to notice that both this decision and the later Roe's had a precedent in contraceptive rights. A Pennsylvania case involving a health clinic handing out free condoms and diaphragms (at that time all contraceptive devices were outlawed by state statute) was found for the clinic, as the Supreme Court decided "the state has no compelling interest in violating a couple's right to privacy" by dictating what they do about contraception in their own home (Garrett 16). Both precedents were crucial to the most famous abortion case in history, Roe v. Wade. In 170, a young Texas woman sought to challenge the Constitutionality of an existing Texas statute outlawing abortions. After three years of appeals, the case ended up in the Supreme Court and became one of the longest and most controversial in history. The 7- majority decision upheld the earlier district court ruling, namely, that the law was unconstitutional on the basis of violating the th and 14th Amendments' guarantees of personal liberty and privacy (Tompkins 1). The Berger Court did much more than that, though it set up guidelines for existing and future abortion laws. According to the findings of the court, abortion was completely legal in the first two trimesters of pregnancy, although it could be regulated in the second trimester to protect the health of the mother. In the third trimester, when the fetus could theoretically survive outside the mother's womb, protection of embryonic life became the state's compelling interest and legislation on abortion could be enacted at the state's discretion (Goode 17). The state's interest in the embryo, however, is questionable at best. Lawrence Lader clarifies, "the concept… is that once a fetus is viable, the state can appropriate a woman's body and submit her to criminal and civil liability for any accidental harm... This trend toward control by the state of a woman's reproductive life accentuates the need for privacy" (1). Tricia Andreyszewski concurs, "on the same grounds, would it be reasonable to prohibit all pregnant women from drinking and smoking? Should they be legally compelled to take vitamins and see a doctor regularly?" (75). The court's ruling in Roe could be foretold as a natural extension of women's rights. As early as 16 the Students for a Democratic Society's (SDS) National Council in Austin concluded "women could not truly direct their own lives, control their physical and psychological health, or make education and career plans if they could not control the number and frequency of their pregnancies" (Tompkins 0). The civil rights guaranteed by this and subsequent cases are many the rights to privacy and choice, the right of a married woman to end a pregnancy without her husband's consent, the right of a teenager to keep an abortion secret from her parents, and the ability for abortion clinics to be paid for through state funds (Andreyszewski 4). The Supreme Court in Roe also cleared up one legal point because people trained in medicine, philosophy, and theology could not reach a consensus on when life begins or what defines personhood, the Court also shied away from these issues, except to determine that the concept of "personhood" as used in the 14th amendment did not apply to the unborn (Terkel ). All of these revolutionary decisions met with a mixture of relief from civil rights activists and shock from the right wing. Abortion clinics, the new bastions of freedom, were soon awash in a rising tide of backlash. Pro-lifers, as anti-abortion advocates now called themselves, surrounded and formed human walls around clinics to embarrass and keep away consulted women. Despite this opposition, the number of facilities offering abortion options grew tremendously until the Reagan-Bush era, when conservative politics crushed financial support and sought to nullify those rights guaranteed by Roe. Today, due mostly to pressure from anti-abortion groups, nine out of ten counties have no facilities that provide abortion services (Costa 8). In a 187 Supreme Court case on abortion, George Bush even sent in United States lawyers to argue against the decision and ask to repeal Roe v. Wade (Tompkins 11). Luckily for civil rights, the bench valued Constitutionality over partisan politics. States will not be allowed to make abortion illegal again. Legal and physical barriers were not the only lanes conservatives took; the conflict frequently escalated into violence. From peaceful protests and sit-ins outside abortion clinics grew the threatening phone calls and bomb threats (real and fictitious) that hound pro-choice doctors to this day (Andreyszewski 1). Militant church groups have even slaughtered whole clinics full of doctors, nurses, and frightened women. Terrorism and fanaticism does not apply only to the Middle East. Why are these people so passionate about what should be a non-issue? To quote Roger Rosenblatt, "the woman who does not wish to become a wife or mother is an implicit threat to "normal" society… the vehemence with which pro-life advocates attack pro-choice women is, I believe, connected to that feeling of threat"(1). Since 186, attitudes have not changed much in the conservative viewpoint. Emotions are still highly charged and rights are still only begrudged to women, and whole congregations have taken various routes to ending abortion. Some groups contend through legal avenues, some through obstruction, and some through outright terrorist tactics. Bombings and threats have permeated the walls of abortion clinics nationwide, as fanatical purists vow to kill to stop the killing. Irony seems to be lost on the religious. As comedian George Carlin once remarked, "What is murdering a doctor if not abortion in the sixtieth trimester?" Dennis Miller summed up the dangers of vigilantism in a rant against the so-called "Religious Right" "Im sorry, you just dont go shooting doctors. If a judgments to be made, God gets to make it. Not you. Him. You are Barney Fife. Keep your bullet in your shirt pocket." Rights and lives are being threatened every day by these conservatives. Fervent debate racks the brains of the scholar, the lawyer, the priest, and the layman. Yet all of this heartache boils down not to a social, not to a medical, not even to a legal or spiritual issue, but to a human one the choice to have an abortion should lie only within the person having it. Works Cited Andreyszewski, Tricia. Abortion Rights, Options, and Choices. Brookfield Millbrook P, 16. Costa, Marie, ed. Abortion A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara ABC-CLIO, 17. Garrett, Major, and Penny, Timothy J. The 15 Biggest Lies in Politics. New York St. Martin's Griffin, 18. Goode, Stephen. The Controversial Court. New York Messner, 18. Lader, Lawrence. RU486. Reading Addison-Wesley, 15. Roleff, Tamara L. Abortion Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego Greenhaven P, 17. Rosenblatt, Roger. Life Itself Abortion in the American Mind. New York Random House, 17. Terkel, Susan N. Abortion Facing the Issues. New York Franklin Watts, 18. Tompkins, Nancy. Roe v. Wade The Fight Over Life and Liberty. Danbury Franklin Watts, 16. Wennburg, Robert N. Life in the Balance. Grand Rapids William B. Eerdmans, 15.

Please note that this sample paper on McDonalds is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on McDonalds, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on McDonalds will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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What types of risk impact upon the capital budgeting decision? Why and to whom are these risks important and how might they be incorporated into the techniques used to evaluate fixed asset investments?

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Introduction

A number of factors combine to make capital budgeting decisions perhaps the most important ones financial managers and their staff must make. There are a huge number of variables that must be considered although many can be defined as neglible due to their probability of occurrence. However the cost of failure is great with companies facing bankruptcy if their market judgement is vastly incorrect. This report then focuses on evaluating the major risks that effect capital budgeting decisions and how that information can aid the techniques used to analyse fixed asset investments.

Replacement and Expansion

First, since the result of capital budgeting decisions have an impact for many years, the firm will lose some of its flexibility. For example, the purchase of an asset with an economic life of ten years locks the firm in for a ten year period. Further because asset expansion is fundamentally related to expected future sales a decision to buy an asset that is expected to last ten years requires a ten year sales forecast. A forecast error can have serious consequences. If the firm invests too much in assets, it will incur unnecessarily high depreciation and other expenses. On the other hand, if it does not spend enough on fixed assets, two problems may arise. 'First, its equipment may not be efficient enough for least-cost production and second, if it has inadequate capacity it may lose a portion of its market share to rival firms, and regaining lost customers will involve heavy selling expenses and price reductions, both of which are costly' (Appendix A1). Effective capital budgeting can improve both the timing of asset acquisitions and the quality of assets purchased. If a firm forecasts its needs for capital assets in advance, it will have an opportunity to purchase and install the assets before they are needed. Unfortunately, many firms do not order capital goods until existing assets are approaching full-capacity usage. If sales grow because of an increase in general market demand, all firms in the industry will tend to order capital goods at about the same time. This results in 'backlogs, long waiting times for machinery, and an increase in their prices' (Appendix A1). The firm which forsees its needs and purchases capital assets during slack periods can avoid these problems. Capital budgeting typically involves substantial expenditures, and before a firm can spend a large amount of money, it must have the funds available - large amounts of money are not available automatically. Therefore, a firm contemplating a major capital expenditure program should plan its financing far enough in advance to be sure funds are available.

Modigliani & Miller

A key area concerned with the capital budgeting decisions made by firms lies within the capital structure policy as this sets the tone for all future financial decisions. These include the choice between debt and equity and the amount to pay out in dividends. The early work in this area was Modigliani and Miller (158). They showed that with 'perfect markets' and 'no taxes' the 'total value of a firm is independent of its debt/equity ratio' (Appendix A). Similarly they demonstrated that the value of the firm is independent of the level of dividends. In their framework it is the investment decisions of the firm that are important in determining its total value.

The importance of the Modigliani and Miller theorems was not as a description of reality. Instead it was to stress the 'importance of taxes and capital market imperfections in determining corporate financial policies' (Appendix A). Incorporating the tax deductibility of interest but not dividends and bankruptcy costs leads to the trade-off theory of capital structure. Some debt is desirable because of the tax shield arising from interest deductibility but the costs of bankruptcy and financial distress limit the amount that should be used. This is because when companies are highly levered the threat of default risks is great. Therefore an optimal range of debt finance needs to be incorporated into capital structure policy.

This is an extremely important concept for companies to consider when undertaking in capital budget decisions as their capital structure will have a large influence in determining which investment options to pursue. For example if the company decides to follow an investment proposal where the discounted payback period is great during the later stages of the project although the initial cash outlays are large. If the company is heavily financed through debt then the risk placed on that project will be high due to the probable default risk occurring if the short term future produces an uncertain event that throws the investment into doubt. A recent example of this case is described below

Case Study A Crisis in Football

The recent crisis in the football industry has demonstrated the importance of keeping a tight control of a company's finances. As the industry became increasingly profitable throughout the 10's many clubs operated under the trade off theory principles (Appendix B1). To incorporate increased spending in parallel with exponential transfer and wage increases clubs borrowed excessively to a point where the industry could not sustain itself any longer. This reached a head during May 00 when the sudden collapse of ITV Digital resulted in the threat of bankruptcy for many smaller clubs. This situation was due to fact that smaller clubs had gambled their future on the excessive amounts of capital they were receiving from ITV Digital. Capital budget decisions had been based around spending for short term gains thus allowing football clubs to neglect their long term survival and as a result over six hundred footballers were made redundant during the summer in order to cut costs.

Industry variations of capital budgeting decisions

When analysing the financial risks faced by capital budgeting decisions it is important to remember that companies in different industries will face different risks regarding their ability to invest. Therefore external constraints like the rising cost of capital can effect companies in different ways. Harris and Aviv (11) surveyed the area coming to the following conclusions

• Firms within an industry are more similar in gearing ratios than those in different industries.

• Industries tend to retain their relative gearing rankings over time.

• Pharmaceuticals, electronic, food, paper and textiles industries have consistent low gearing.

• Regulated industries (Telephone, electric and gas utilities) along with airlines are among the most highly geared firms.

For example the highly profitable semi-conductor companies of the mid 10's like Samsung, did not shift their capital budgeting decisions policy towards higher levels of debt as the trade off theory suggests. This can be explained through the fact that in high-tech growth industries current assets are best described as risky and intangible. Therefore borrowing heavily would appear foolish as in times of crisis the company's current assets would be rendered worthless resulting in nothing tangible to safeguard against spiraling default payments. This does appear slightly pessimistic considering during times of prosperity one would expect expansion and growth however there are many other risk factors that need to be taken into account when forming capital budgeting decisions.

Other risk factors

These include

Sales Stability Companies with a stable source of income can feel more comfortable about supporting higher levels of debt because they are able to service the debt.

Asset Structure When fixed assets are at a higher percentage relative to current assets, higher levels of debt can be supported due to the security factor. The lender is aware that if the interest can not be paid, fixed assets can be sold off.

Operating Leverage The relationship between fixed and variable costs suggests that a high level of operating leverage will result in a high level of fixed costs. Therefore a company that is highly levered in operating leverage should have low levels of financial leverage to prevent the increase of costs.

Management Attitudes These attitudes change regarding the current financial climate and whether personal styles tend to be more conservative or aggressive.

Lender and Rating Agency Attitudes The credit rating of a firm has implications regarding the entire capital structure policy of a firm.

Management Decisions

It is essential that top management is aware of the information gained from producing the capital budgeting decisions and it is not just limited to the financial management department. Often within companies there is a capping of the capital budget made by top management which can extinguish any investments projects no matter how profitable they might be. Therefore there needs to be a good two way communication process between senior management and financial management to prevent conflict occurring.

One way of achieving this is through SWOT analysis. Before developing strategies to accomplish the firms objectives, a manager needs to access the internal strengths and weaknesses of the firm. This evaluation should include the firms financial health, physical capital, human resources, production efficiency, and product demand. External threats and opportunities that impact the firms ability to accomplish its objectives also need to be considered. An external threat and opportunity analysis might include evaluating the behavior of close competitors or assessing the impacts of the business cycle on clientele incomes and the resulting product demand. The SWOT analysis helps the firm understand the current constraints placed on it by both internal and external forces and enables the firm to take corrective action, when possible to better position itself to accomplish its objectives.

Through implementing SWOT analysis correctly a greater amount of information is available to make informed capital budgeting decisions. The technique can then be implemented with in standard investment appraisal techniques such as NPV, discounted payback period and IRR. By providing SWOT analysis to aid capital budgeting decisions the threat of failure deceases. However reviewing or post-auditing is a final step to review the performance of investment projects after they have been implemented. While projected cash flows are uncertain and one should not expect actual values to agree with predicted values, the analysis should attempt to find systematic biases or errors by individuals, departments, or divisions and attempt to identify reasons for these errors. Another reason to audit project performance is to decide whether to abandon or continue projects that have done poorly. Therefore in order to eliminate poor performance the various risks associated with capital budgeting decisions need to be applied as strictly in the auditing process to aid in the decision making process for future capital budgeting decisions.

Please note that this sample paper on What types of risk impact upon the capital budgeting decision? Why and to whom are these risks important and how might they be incorporated into the techniques used to evaluate fixed asset investments? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on What types of risk impact upon the capital budgeting decision? Why and to whom are these risks important and how might they be incorporated into the techniques used to evaluate fixed asset investments?, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on What types of risk impact upon the capital budgeting decision? Why and to whom are these risks important and how might they be incorporated into the techniques used to evaluate fixed asset investments? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Economics of Open Source

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Economics of open source

The economic impact of open source models is going to be very high, not only in the software industry, but in society in general. In this section, we discuss in some detail some of the more foreseeable issues related to this impact. Some of them are just projections from current trends, but some others have already arrived. To begin with, several new economic models for open source projects will be presented (externally funded, internally funded, unfunded, and internally used). Later on, the issue of total cost of ownership will be discussed in subsection 5.5. In subsection 5.6 some discussion on the macro-economic consequences of widespread use of open source will be introduced. To finish this section, some impressions on the future of the software market, considering open source models, are discussed in subsection 5.7.

The subsections on new economic models are important because many traditional models of the software industry are heavily based on proprietary software where the income is directly related to per-copy price (particularly in the case of shrink-wrapped software). With some exceptions, these traditional models are not viable with open source software, since income cannot come from selling copies of the software (freedom of redistribution tends to set the price at the point where marginal cost of reproduction is near zero). Therefore, open source business must look for other sources of income.

The taxonomy of models presented in this section is not just an analysis of currently existing models, even considering that some of them have been already tested in the industry. On the contrary, we have tried to create as complete as possible a categorization of models that can be self-sustaining, or at least feasible from a business point of view. However, real examples are added to each categories wherever we know of them.

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Interested readers can refer to [7] for another taxonomy of open source business models, more focused on what is currently available, and to [8], which includes the results of a survey about how do open source business behave. In addition, in appendix B we provide information about some real business based on free software, which can be used as case examples.

New economic models Externally funded ventures

We consider in this category groups or companies which develop open source software through the initiative (at least in the financial sense) of some external organization. Usually those external entities determine how the funds are to be spent, and where the development efforts are headed. The developer entity just follows those more or less strict guidelines. In some sense, it could be said that the external entity 'sponsors the development of some given open source software. In this category, we can distinguish at least three models, according to who funds the project and why. We have called them public funding, 'needed improvement funding, and indirect funding.

Public funding

Working groups or individuals receive funding for the development of a good software product, documentation, test cases or whatever. Usually, the only constraints imposed by the funding entity are that funds must be used to complete the project. This is typical of large computer science projects, and the funding usually comes from universities or from national science grants. In fact, many large projects in radioastronomy, computational chemistry, and biology are funded this way. In addition, some consortiums for the development of Internet tools and technologies have (or have had) such a funding structure. It is important to notice that in these cases the funding institution is not expecting to recover the investment, or to directly benefit from it. Usually, some expectation of social improvement is the reason for the funding.

'Needed improvement funding

A company or organization may need a new or improved version of a software package, and fund some consultant or software manufacturer to do the work. Later on, the resulting software is redistributed as open source to take advantage of the large pool of skilled developers who can debug and improve it.

An example of this model is the work commissioned to Macadamian Software by Corel Corporation to improve the Wine Windows emulator. This work allowed Corel to port its entire software suite to several additional platforms (the suite was based in MS-Windows) with a simple recompilation process. This was of course significantly cheaper than accomplishing a complete porting process, or than building a proprietary Windows emulator, since Wine was already partially built. The work (still in progress) significantly improved the quality of the emulator, and the improvements made by Macadamian were integrated directly into the Wine code base.

Indirect funding

A company may decide to fund open source software projects if those projects can create a significant revenue source for related products, not directly connected with source code or software.

An example of this case is OReilly & Associates, a publisher specialized in technical books. They paid some of the most important Perl programmers as a way to ensure continued development of the language, this way allowing for more sales of Perl-related books (which they publish).

Another example is VA Research, a seller of hardware systems preinstalled with GNU/Linux. They enrolled as developers many important Linux kernel programmers, thus helping to guarantee the continuous development of the Linux kernel. With a better Linux kernel, the areas of possible use of GNU/Linux expand, and with this the sales of Linux hardware. Even when other hardware vendors profit from this growth, VA Linux Systems owns a healthy market share of it, which justifies the spending of money for the general improvement of Linux. For instance, VA Linux is spending about 1 million USD in kernel improvement, while the overall market growth is of about 00 million USD, of which VA Linux systems has about 0% (or 40 millions), which leads to additional revenues of about 4 million USD. This obviously justifies the spending of the 1 million.

Yet another case is the writing of software needed to run hardware, for instance, operating system drivers for specific hardware. In fact, many hardware manufacturers are already distributing gratis software drivers. Some of them are already distributing some of their drivers (specially those for the Linux kernel) as open source software.

On other side, Red Hat is also a good example. They founded the Red Hat Advanced Development Labs, and hired several skilled programmers to work on strategic (for Red Hat) open source software (mainly the GNOME system). By funding this project they helped to create a valuable product for their main product (the Red Hat Linux distribution), while collaborating to develop new open source software.

New economic models Internal use

Some projects can get started as a lower-cost alternative to proprietary systems. In this case, the developer company does not have (at least in the beginning) any plan to get external income related to the sale of the software or services related to it. The company develops some system because it is useful for them, and later decides to make it open source, and distribute it widely, just to benefit from the open source development source. Probably they will get some contributions, improvements and bug fixes from external developers interested in the software, and some bug reports. Later on, the product may even reach some market acceptance, and the developer company could even get some economic benefits from it.

For instance, a large enterprise with several thousand desktop computers can decide to create some software internally, and to make this software available under an open source licence to get the benefits of a larger base of developers that may be interested in helping out. The Cisco printing system is a good case example of this kind of model.

'Best knowledge here without constraints

In this model, a company works as a paid consultant, with contracts granted on the basis of the higher level of knowledge of their employees. Any company can implement this model, as there are no limitations that prevent a competent technician from gaining an arbitrarily deep experience of open source software systems. Of course, this also means that any firm using this model is exposed to the risk of being superseded by someone else, if the level of competence is reached but not maintained. An example of this model is LinuxCare, a firm specializing in consulting on GNU/Linux systems, which also sells support.

'Best knowledge here with constraints

To prevent competitors from 'stealing customers, a firm can place arbitrary limitations on the process of knowledge sharing, through patents or trade secrets. Of course this is incompatible with the diffusion of software through an open source licence. However, it can be implemented by placing under a more restrictive licence just a small (but fundamental) part of the code, usually considering it as a ''black box. This kind of limitation can be introduced just to have an additional legal right, for example to avoid patent litigation. In the past this kind of limit has been avoided by the open source community by recoding the 'black box and creating an open source alternative, for instance by creating a loadable library with identical interfaces.

'Best code here without constraints

In this model, a company develops some open source code, and sells consulting and maintenance services on it. This is similar to 'best knowledge here, but with an additional advantage in terms of time, since a competitor needs some months to create a similar code, or to understand all the intricacies of someone elses source. This gives a time advantage to the company or group that creates the software in the first place. Examples are Cygnus solutions and their support of the gcc/egcs compiler and the glibc library. AbiSoft, BitWizard, and Digital Creations are other firms with a similar business model.

'Best code here with constraints

The preceding model can be completed with some additional limits, usually to get a wider gap of saleability of the code. The most common limit is the 'delayed availability, where the author of the code imposes some artificial limit that decays with time or with successive releases of the software product. An example is Alladin with their GhostScript Postscript-compatible printing engine.

'Special licences

It is also possible to sell 'exceptions to an open source licence for specific commercial applications. For example, SleepyCat software distributes the dbm database engine under the GPL, but can grant 'exceptions under an alternative licence which allows for integration into proprietary projects, which is impossible with the GPLed version (they also provide services as consultants on the same code).

'Brand selling

If a name gets recognized enough, it becomes a selling media by itself, like regular 'brand selling in other marketing fields. An example is Red Hat, that has promoted its distribution with such success that many people identify GNU/Linux with this specific brand of distribution. This also helps to explain the relatively high market capitalization that Red Hat achieved with its initial public offering in the American stock markets.

New economic models Unfunded developments

If there is enough 'network effect, there may be no need for funding, just a minimal effort for the organization of releases and patches. Examples of these kinds of open source projects are the Linux kernel, GNU/Linux distributions like Debian, BSD-based operating systems such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, or OpenBSD, and the Mesa OpenGL-like library. These efforts started in many cases as the effort of a single man, or of a small group, and through good organization and volunteer work they created an extended networked structure that maintains the code. Even with some (limited) funding for some projects, all of these efforts become successful without an external grant or without explicit money offerings. In fact, this is the case for hundreds of small open source projects.

The big (macro-economic) picture

The existence of free (open source) software has a complex and important impact on the economy as a whole. The fact that information technology becomes more accessible and is more trusted is an enabler for the creation of new markets. The existence of a population of pro-users (users that are also producers of software and information) plays a key role in the take-up of new activities and branches, as illustrated by the example of music, digital photography and personal home pages. New products (for instance appliances), new services (for instance training or information services) and new branches of activity can develop on this basis. In specific fields, such as education, the reduction in total cost of ownership that is enabled by use of open source platforms, and even more the mobilisation of the creative abilities of all players in the field lead to an increased efficiency of the public services. The dynamic stability enabled by open source platforms, that is the possibility to have long-term trajectories of innovation, make possible more efficient investment strategies in user industries.

However, while the reality of these macro-economic effects is well documented, their quantification, and their comparison (taking in account possible negative macro-economic impact) is not possible today, because of the lack of adequate detailed statistical data on free and open source usage and its detailed links with economical and non-economical activities. The development of the proper macro-economic indicators is needed if decisions with respect to the impact of open source on the economy of a whole country are to be taken based in facts.

Open source software and renewed competition in the software market

A common discussion, even within the open source community, is whether open source software models are more or less productive than proprietary models. From our point of view, in most situations, proprietary software can only be profitable if no other competing open source software product exists with similar characteristics. And the open source software model seems to ensure that once it enters a niche with enough energy, it can produce a product capable of competing with any proprietary counterpart. The cases of Gnat and Apache are clear in this respect17. And cases like Zope18 seem to demonstrate that at least some investors have realized that fact.

If this opinion is true, open source software models should all become self-sustaining. That is, as time goes by, enough resources should be collected by open source projects to maintain a steady level of development. And resources are not reduced to money, as the Linux case demonstrates. Important resources are, for instance, developers time, or beta testers. However, a company producing a new product should consider going open source if there is already a dominant producer in its niche. If not, probably it wont achieve great results, since competing with the proprietary rules is hard for starters, especially in established markets. But going open source, the whole environment, and the rules, change. The dominant producer no longer has all the advantage, and many customers will be motivated enough (by lower costs, by a better product, by more control on the development path, or whatever) to give the open source product a try. And this forces the dominant producer to change its strategy, improving on the quality of the product and service, switching to an open source model or offering any improvement that represents value to the buyer of the software product. Right now, this seems to be affecting even big players, like any Unix vendor which tries to compete with GNU/Linux, or any WWW server vendor which tries to compete with Apache.

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Evol vs creat

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In my short life on this planet I have come to question things

that many take upon blind faith. We all know that we must some day

die; yet we continuously deny the forces at work inside ourselves,

which want to search out the answers of what may or may not come

Help with essay on evol vs creat

after. It is far easier for humanity to accept that they will go to a

safe haven and be rewarded for their lives with pleasures and

fantasies of an unfathomable scale than to question the existence of a

supposed omnipotent being. Yet, there are a few of us humans who tend

to question the whys and wherefores that society puts forth to us.

We question the existence of God, or the creation of mankind rather

than blindly accepting faith-filled beliefs we may received from our

parents as children. Perhaps it is because we live in a nation filled

with many peoples of different beliefs whose Gods are all so varied

and different that it is difficult to fathom that they are all the

same divine being. It is also plausible that we just have a desire to

quench the thirst for knowledge that lies deep within ourselves. As

for myself, I cannot believe in a being which created a universe and a

multitude of worlds in a rather short period of time then deigns to

lower itself into becoming a puppet-master and pulling the strings

of the Earth and all of the people therein.

Since this paper touches upon many scientific terms, I feel

that in order for the reader to correctly grasp the content I must

first define three words Theory, Law, and Hypothesis. The definitions

will allow for a greater understanding of this essay and give us an

even ground upon which to begin.

---

Theory; noun

1. a. Systematically organized knowledge applicable in a relatively

wide variety of circumstances, especially a system of assumptions,

accepted principles, and rules of procedure devised to analyze,

predict, or otherwise explain the nature or behavior of a specified

set of phenomena. b. Such knowledge or such a system.

. An assumption based on limited information or knowledge; a

conjecture.

Law; noun

1. a. A formulation describing a relationship observed to be

invariable between or among phenomena for all cases in which the

specified conditions are met the law of gravity. b. A generalization

based on consistent experience or results the law of supply and

demand; the law of averages.

Hypothesis; noun

1. A tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be

tested by further investigation; a theory.

. Something taken to be true for the purpose of argument or

investigation; an assumption.

---

It is important that you thoroughly read the above definitions

or you will be at a disadvantage if you do not. You will note that

there are several different definitions to each word. I felt it was

important to include the added definitive statement to theory because

it shows the difference between a scientific theory and an everyday

theory based upon conjecture. The additional definitions to law and

hypothesis are both added for a further understanding of these words.

The definition of creationism is somewhat more complex. One

must start by saying that the belief in the creation of the universe

given at the beginning of the Bible is literally true. Creationism is

a belief based solely upon faith (which is a belief in and of itself).

There are no scientific facts as a basis for this belief, solely

conjectural theories and speculations. It is ingrained into our minds,

as children that a belief of a force, or supernatural entity, which is

all powerful and all knowing, is watching over us and taking care of

our needs. Yet, to me, saying this very sort of thing is heretical in

its very essence. To be so crude as to think that some being which

created the universe itself and all things in it would take the time

to care for each and every individual is incomprehensible. In

practically all ancient cultures, the biblical included, the universe

was thought of as an original chaos into which order had been

introduced by a creative hand This was the essence of creation.1 In

this statement alone we can see one of the major flaws of creationism.

While science can prove without doubt the universe up to the first 0

milliseconds of existence, we cannot prove anything before that point

at this time. The statement above, regarding creationism, suggests

that there was no beginning, only chaos. Subsequently this creative

hand structured the order of the universe out of chaos and applied

physical laws to that chaos so it would form itself into motion and

order. Yet, creationism as a whole does not touch base upon what came

before the chaos. While science admits that there was a time in which

different laws and order applied; creationism attempts to deny this

existence by saying that there was always something. For if there was

indeed a beginning and there was no God before this time, where did

God come from? We can scientifically prove that there was a beginning.

We cannot yet ascertain what was before this beginning, but we now

know that there was one. To suggest that the universe has always

existed is a mere myth today. Much like the myth that the world was

once flat. Today, we take for granted that the world is indeed round,

for have we not seen pictures from the space shuttle in orbit of the

earth. Not to mention the multitude of orbital shots from satellites.

Consequently we would consider it preposterous if someone attempted to

tell us that the world is a flat surface. Yet, upon blind faith, some

are content to believe that a creative hand structured this

existence. Although the figures (Gods) differ from mythos to mythos,

all the ancient stories intend simply to give a poetic accounting for

cosmic origins.

In the scientific community there is a well known and accepted

theory known as the Big Bang Theory. Most people know of this theory

because they were taught it in school. Yet it usually contradicted

what their parents and pastors taught them in church. As a result, the

Big Bang Theory was generally discarded as something that intellectual

minds which cannot exist upon the true faith alone, must accept as

truth. The Big Bang Theory is stated in condensed form as follows. As

the universe expanded, the residual radiation from the big bang would

continue to cool, until now it should be a temperature of about K

(about -70ø C/-454ø F). This relic radiation was detected by radio

astronomy in 165, thereby providing what most astronomers consider to

be confirmation of the big bang theory. In this statement we have our

first of arguments over creationism by evolution. We have the

beginnings of a proof that there was a time or rather, I should say, a

point in time where there was indeed nothing.

Many creationists will argue that the universe is too ordered;

the path of the planets (which meant wanderers, or great wanderers in

early Grecian society) is too ordered, too perfect. I will start by

asking you to attempt to define perfect (as it existed at that time).

In the creationalistic point of view, a person might write it off as

the act of God. It was his divine will that moved the planets together

in such a way as to be able to support life. Or you could ask the more

worldly scientist who would explain to you about the Law of

Probability, the Theory of Relativity, and show you lengthy

mathematical equations dealing with Quantum and Theoretical Physics.

In the end, you would likely have a headache of immense size, but come

away with perhaps a better understanding of how the order of events,

and the laws which created, ordered and structured the planets to

exist as they do. Many creationism fanatics will also attempt to

dissuade the argument of evolution by saying that the Big Bang is

merely a theory. The only reply that the scientific world can refute

this with is the fact that relativity and gravity, are also theories.

This argument by creationists is obviously not in their favor.

The creation of the universe by scientific means is a

world-wide theory that many creationists refute simply because it goes

against their beliefs. Yet to understand evolution to its fullest, we

must further investigate life, or rather human life. We ask questions

like How did we evolve from amoebae? Are you trying to tell me that I

evolved from an ape? If we are evolving in such a manner as described,

why can we not see it daily? Since these are all very good questions,

I will touch base upon them all.

Approximately seven-hundred or eight-hundred million years ago

life was first known on this planet in the form of single-celled

organisms called procaryotes, not amoebae. Over time these unicellular

organisms diversified into an array of adaptive types. Scientists

hypothesize that many advanced cells (eucaryotes) may have evolved

through amalgamation of a number of distinct simple cell types.

Single-celled eucaryotes then developed complex modes of living and

advanced types of reproduction that led to the appearance of

multicellular plants and animals. The latter are first known from

about seven-hundred million years ago, and their appearance implies

that at least moderate levels of free atmospheric oxygen and a

relatively predictable supply of food plants had been achieved.4

Through a long and drawn out process life eventually formed into that

of mammals and dinosaurs. However, approximately sixty-five million

years ago the dinosaur specie was completely eradicated (perhaps by

way of natural selection), which left only mammals.

Approximately two million years ago humanity began to show its

evolution in the order of the universe. Humans originally belonged to

an order of mammals, the primates, which existed before the dinosaurs

became extinct. This development of descending from tree habitats to

forest floors and eventually to more open country was associated with

the development of many unique features of the human primate, such as

erect posture and reduced canine teeth, which suggests new habits of

feeding. However, while humanity did evolve from a primate ancestor,

it did not evolve directly from an ape-like specie. Humans as well as

apes both evolved from the same primate specie, but each branched in

different directions to become apes in one specie and humans in

another specie.

Yet, you ask that if this is the case, and humanity has

evolved from primates in such a short period of time, why can we not

see the evolutionary process taking place today? The answer is a

simple one. I know of no human which has lived for two-million years.

Which in and of itself is not a very valid argument for this case, but

nevertheless a substantial point at any rate. However, if we were to

be more objective about the process of human evolution we would see

that in the life span of the earth we are still a relatively young

race. Dinosaurs, for example, inhabited this planet for over

one-hundred-thirty-five million years. In relative view of this

information, we can see that humans have only been in existence for

approximately 1/60th of the time that dinosaurs existed. With this in

mind, we can further grasp that the process of evolution is a very

slow process which requires an almost incomprehensible scale of time

to our limited lifespans.

While I realize that many points, and beliefs were not touched

upon in this essay I did attempt to cover as much ground as possible

in as short a space as possible. It is painfully clear to me that an

existence based upon blind faith is no longer an acceptable tradition.

The ideas of creationism are far outweighed by the Laws and Theories

of evolution. While there are understandably a great many men who have

spent a vast amount of time in scribing the Bible, we must realize

that they were indeed men, not Gods and the bible is, actually, only a

book. To believe the contents of that book completely, one must have

unwavering faith in the validity of its concepts and the precepts upon

which its religion is based. One of the striking and perhaps most

intriguing points of interest that I have stumbled upon is the lack of

education of creationism in schools. If the point was so very valid

and without skeptical doubt, then why is it not being taught to our

children? I understand the idea of separation between church and

state, and the fact that the school is very much a part of state. Yet

it seems to me that if the idea is a basic building block in todays

society then why not teach this to the young? Why is it that we only

teach evolution if it is so unbelievable? The simple fact of the

matter is that we have evidence and supporting cases in science today

which makes the very idea of creationism redundant to teach, as well

as a contradicting view of evolution which could possibly confuse

those of a younger age. There are many religions in the world upon

which the bible are based, and the ones which espouse creationism are

but a few. Being a western culture we tend to forget this.

In summary I believe that evolution is the only plausible of

these two theories which is acceptable to the current state of

humanity. In closing I leave you with a simple, yet disturbing

statement that a great man once told me it is not what you believe;

its what you can prove. Creationism is based upon belief; evolution

is based upon scientific proof.

Please note that this sample paper on evol vs creat is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on evol vs creat, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college papers on evol vs creat will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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