Wednesday, September 11, 2019

LEGALIZE MARIJUANA!!!

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War Against Marijuana A total of ,470,545 Americans have been arrested for marijuana offenses. In 17 state and local law enforcement arrested 65,00 people for marijuana violations. That number is the highest ever recorded by the FBI. Of the 68,885 arrests made in 18, approximately 88% were for simple possession. The remaining 1% were for sale and manufacture. Every 5 seconds, a marijuana smoker is arrested in America. This is truly a waste of law enforcement and a waste of our tax money. These people getting arrested are generally responsible adults capable of making their own decisions.


Marijuana was made illegal in 17, but hemp was kept legal to use. Hemp provides from four to fourteen tons of dry fibers per acre per year. It can be made into paper, cloth, and cellulose for plastic. If drug laws would allow hemp farming, we'd have an alternative resource for paper, which would save our trees. When you look at the one-dollar bill, you are looking at a hemp farmer, George Washington grew hemp. The US Drug Enforcement Agency is ignorant to realize that there is a big difference between hemp and marijuana. Hemp can not be used to get high, and it never was used for that, but it still was put in the same category as heroin. Our tax dollars go to feed all the people that are held in prison on marijuana related charges. Those people are now struggling to feed their children, knowing that they won't get much help, because they are "criminals" according to a good percentage of society. Our society thinks marijuana isn't acceptable because it is illegal. Marijuana was made illegal because congress put up a fight, and went against narcotics. It was found a narcotic when it was classified along with opiates. It was deemed too dangerous to allow research, and dismissed all attempts to argue over it.


We know that the legal drug addictions present now, do not cause any crimes. The actions from them, but not the use. You can't baby all alcohol users, making sure they don't drink too much. You can't tell someone that they can't smoke marijuana, when their beliefs are otherwise. On June 1, 000, Val Walton a news staff writer for The Birmingham News reported that a 46 year old man could face life in prison after pleading guilty Tuesday to running a drug operation that sold thousands of pounds of marijuana. The man pleaded guilty to his charges of continuing a criminal enterprise and drug trafficking. Since this is a federal offense, he is not provided with parole as an option. He could face 0 years to life in prison. Now this man is not innocent, he was carrying an illegal firearm to engage in money laundering. His home was searched and authorities found at least 40 weapons, $0,000 worth of jewelry and more was found in a safety deposit box. This man should spend some time in prison for these offenses with no doubt. But the 0 years to life is for the marijuana, and the added 5-year sentence is for the weapons charge. This is just one of the thousands of cases, and not the usual, most are just for marijuana offenses.


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Marijuana is classified as a minor psychedelic drug. If it is used in large amounts, it could lead to a psychedelic effect. So can medication and alcohol, and it is okay to drink alcohol. This is not a new drug either; it dates back to 4,000 years ago in China. The emperor smoked it, and promoted its use for an all-purpose medication. It spread to India and other neighboring countries. Early Hindus used it for a variety of purposes as well. We have used it as a medical aid for thousands of years, and still are used for a variety of purposes, just not legally in most cases.


There are many myths about Pot used to discourage use. One is that Pot is nearly ten times more potent and dangerous than in the sixties. This is based on government data, and samples from the 70's recently compared to domesticated marijuana of today show that it's potency has increased moderately by a factor of two or so. The government ignores that it was available in premium varieties in the sixties, like Acapulco Gold, as well as hashish and hash oil, which is every bit as strong as today's marijuana. Another myth is that Pot kills brain cells. This myth came from animal experiments in which changes, not actual cell deaths were observed when animals were exposed to high doses of pot. There is no physical evidence that it causes permanent brain damage. User's should know that it does cause short-term memory loss has been found in chronic smokers, after about 6 to 1 weeks of abstinence. This is probably what makes people think it will damage you brain cells. Other drugs including alcohol have been noted to cause brain damage though. People try to say it will cause you to become sterile and lower testosterone in males. In contrast to alcohol use, there is more of a chance you will become impotent or have low testosterone levels from drinking alcohol. In females it has been shown that it may temporarily lower fertility or increase risk of fetal lost, even mildly disrupt ovulation. Again, if you drink alcohol the same risks are at stake, even worse ones.


Experts generally recommend that drugs not are used during pregnancy, but there is little evidence that marijuana use implicates fetal harm, unlike alcohol, cocaine, or tobacco. A variety of studies indicate that THC may exercise reversible immune-suppressive effects by causing the activity of the immune system cells to be inhibited. It is dubious whether they are of import to human health, since it is based mainly on theoretical laboratory animal studies. Chronic pot smokers have been shown to suffer damage to immune cells, the ones that are defense mechanisms. It is unclear how much damage is caused due to THC, as opposed to all the other toxins that occur in smoke. Water pipes and other devices can filter out many of those toxins. Many AIDS patients smoke marijuana to help stimulate appetite and reduce nausea. Cannabis doesn't actually damage T-cells, which are depleted in HIV patients. Some studies even found that exposure to marijuana increased T-cell counts in subjects who were not AIDS patients, but had a low T-cell count. Laboratory studies have suggested that high doses of THC might interfere with cell replication, Producing abnormal numbers of chromosomes. There is no evidence that it damages cells and chromosomes.


A review done by Dr. Leo Hollister from the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs said "The evidence on immune suppression has been contradictory and is more supportive of some degree of immune-suppression only when one considers in vitro studies. These have been seriously flawed by very high concentrations of drugs used to produce immune-suppression. The closer that experimental studies have been to actual clinical situations, the less compelling has been the evidence." Another popular myth is that one joint equal about 4 cigarettes. Critics have exaggerated the dangers if pot smoking. Dr. Tashkin found that daily pot smokers experienced a "mild but significant" increase in airflow resistance in large airways. This is greater than persons smoking 16 cigarettes per day are. What examiners ignore is that marijuana smokers did much are better than tobacco smokers in aspects of lung health. Dr. Tashkin himself says that the notion that one joint equal 16 or maybe just 4 cigarettes is not true. An estimate that marijuana smokers consume four times as much carcinogenic tar as cigarette smokers per weight smoked. The average joint usually contains 0.4 grams of pot, a bit less than one-half the weight of a cigarette. A joint is equal to two cigarettes, which isn't an exact equivalency, but is more accurate. Marijuana affects different parts of the respiratory tract than cigarettes; tobacco tends to penetrate smaller passageways of the lungs. One consequence of this is that pot, unlike cigarettes, does not appear to cause emphysema. Most experts agree that occasional or moderate use of marijuana is innocuous, they agree that excessive use can be harmful. Research shows that the two major risks are respiratory disease due to smoking, and accidental injuries due to impairment. A survey from the Kaiser Permanente Center found that daily marijuana-only users have a 1% higher rate of respiratory complaints than non-smokers do. Marijuana contains virtually the same toxic gases and tars as tobacco. The hazards of marijuana can be reduced by various strategies. One is to use higher-potency cannabis, which can be smoked in smaller quantities, use of water pipes and other smoke reduction technologies, and ingesting pot orally instead of smoking. People can use marijuana as a tea, or bake it into foods, but you must use about three times as much marijuana for the effect.


There is no scientific evidence that marijuana is a "gateway" drug. Cannabis is used by cultures in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America shows no propensity for other drugs. The theory of marijuana leading to other drugs came from the sixties, when it became the leading recreational drug. Events in the eighties showed cocaine abuse exploded at the same time marijuana use declined. There is evidence that cannabis may be a substitute for other drugs such as alcohol and hard drugs. A survey by Dr. Patricia Morgan or the University of California at Berkeley, found a significant number of pot smokers and dealers switched to met amphetamine "ice", when Hawaii's marijuana eradication program created a shortage of pot. Marijuana doesn't lead to other drugs for the reason it is illegal, but because dealers are likely to deal other illicit drugs as well. Whatever the risks are when someone smokes pot, the laws make matters worse in several ways. Paraphernalia laws impede the development and marketing of water pipes, and all other advance technology that could reduce the harmfulness of marijuana smoke. Prohibition encourages sale of pot that has been contaminated or adulterated by insecticides, or mixed with other drugs such as PCP, crack, or heroin. By raising the price of marijuana, it makes in uneconomical to consume it orally, which is the best way to avoid the smoke exposure all together. When you eat it, it typically requires two or three more times as much marijuana as smoking.


There has never been a controlled scientific study showing that a drug urinalysis improves work place safety. The largest survey to date, covering 4,6 postal workers nationwide, found no difference in accident records between workers who tested positive. Random drug testing of transportation workers was enacted by a reaction to a single 187 train collision in which 16 Amtrak passengers were killed by a Conrail train that didn't stop. The engineer and brakeman of the Conrail train were found to have recently smoked marijuana, though it could not be proven that it caused the accident. The engineer had extensive record of speeding and DUI. He was known by management to have drinking problems. Congress mandated that random drug testing be done on the entire transportation industry. Marijuana is less of a road hazard than alcohol. Surveys have found that half or more of fatal drivers have alcohol in their blood, as opposed to 7-0% with THC, the major component of marijuana.


The combination of marijuana and alcohol is a hazard. Some research suggested that low doses of marijuana alone might sometimes improve driving performance, but not true in most cases. Marijuana appears to produce greater caution, because users are more aware of their state, so the become more alert. Even though this is true in some cases, no one should drive when they are high. It should be noted that these results might not apply to non-driving related situations, where forgetfulness or inattention can be less important than speed and safety in a vehicle. There has never been a single commercial passenger airline accident attributed to marijuana abuse. Drug tests on railroad workers found no elevated incidence of drug use among workers involved in accidents. In surveyed blood samples from 18 drivers killed in a car, truck and motorcycle accidents in seven states during 10-1 found that 51.5% of specimens as against 17.8% for all other drugs combined. Marijuana, the second most common drug, appeared in just 6.7% of accidents. Two-thirds of the marijuana using drivers also had alcohol. Drivers who use alcohol are especially vulnerable to fatal accidents when the are at the wheel. Marijuana alone had no indications to cause fatal accidents when not combined with other drugs. The Kaiser study also found that daily pot users have a 0% higher risk of injuries, mostly from accidents. These figures are pretty accurate, and not nearly as high as comparable risks for heavy drinkers or tobacco addicts.


Marijuana can cause accidents isn't surprising since it has been shown to degrade short-term memory in chronic pot smokers. It can also impair concentration, judgment, and coordination at complex tasks including driving. There have been numerous reports of pot-related accidents, some fatal; saying it is a myth that no one has ever died from marijuana. A survey of 1,0 emergency room trauma patients in Baltimore found that 4.7% were under the influence of marijuana, more than alcohol, but almost all were combinations with alcohol use and pot.


The Partnership for a Drug-free America did a survey among teenagers from 1-15 years old. Only eight percent believed that people who use marijuana are popular. From this study they found that fewer teens agree many rock and rap stars make drug use look tempting, but few believe it glamorizes drug use. Teens thinking that most people use marijuana at least once or twice, declined to 5 percent in 18 and 41 percent in 17. 11 percent of teens think it is difficult to say no to reject invitation to try marijuana. Statistically, drug use among teens has declined significantly. So why do we continue to say we have a marijuana problem, when indeed it has gotten much better? Teens are people too, which make decisions just like adults. There are more teenagers out there than we think that make smart choices and act responsibly. One would not condone a child to use marijuana; we don't allow them to use tobacco products and alcohol. This is a must in keeping them safe, because children are not mature enough to handle responsibility with drugs. That is where marijuana gets its bad reputation. Children who are involved with the drug are "curious" and want to try new things. Adults don't turn to crack when they are out of alcohol, so what makes us think that marijuana, a drug, would lead to the same thing?


Knowing the positive side is always nice, but to be logical, you need the negative side as well. The short-term effects of marijuana use include problems with memory and concentration, distorted perception (sight, sound, time, and touch) trouble with problem solving, loss of coordination, increased heart rate, and anxiety. These effects are even greater when other drugs are mixed with marijuana, but it has been proven that every persons body is different and some effects may appear and some may it depends on the person. Long-term effect is cancer, which is still in question and not known whether or not it can be caused by marijuana. To determine whether or not it leads to cancer is hard to find out because so many users smoke cigarettes too. Pot smokers suffer lung damage just like tobacco users, and reported evidence shows that pre-cancerous cells are found in pot smokers. Overall, people who smoke marijuana have the same effects with the respiratory system as tobacco smokers.


Unlike tobacco, marijuana is not addictive from chemicals, it is mostly psychological. When people smoke marijuana, they may get depression, fatigue, and carelessness with appearance, hostility, and deteriorating relationships with family and friends. This is not effects from all users, but for some it can lead to this. Smoking marijuana can also cause change in sleeping patterns.


When we realize the problems that occur from smoking marijuana, it is easier to argue the point of why it remains illegal in the United States. Nearly all the health risks can be compared to those risks with smoking tobacco. When a person smokes a cigarette, the body responds immediately to the chemical nicotine in smoke. Nicotine causes short-term increase in blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow from the heart, and causes arteries to narrow. Carbon monoxide reduces amount of oxygen carried in the blood, which creates an imbalance in the demand for oxygen carried by cells. Smoking can cause chronic lung disease, coronary heart disease, and stroke, as well as cancer in various parts of the body. It is a known fact that smoking tobacco causes cancer, but marijuana is not known for sure to cause it. Women who use tobacco during pregnancy are more likely to have difficult birth, low birth weight, and risk of infant death. Nearly 00,000 infants suffer from lower respiratory tract infections, due to exposure to cigarette smoke. We all know that smoking is almost a definite "no" for pregnant women. You see the warnings on the side of every cigarette pack. Studies done to prove marijuana doesn't harm a fetus are criticized for obvious reasons. A woman named Nancy Day specializes in prenatal care. She did a study that was well controlled; finding that cannabis use had a positive impact on birth weight during the third trimester of pregnancy. Cannabis use is not recommended in pregnancy, it may be of medical value to some women in treating morning sickness or helping in childbirth.


Another drug that causes concern among many Americans, but remains legal is alcohol. Alcohol is absorbed in the stomach, enters the blood stream, and goes into all tissues. The effects from drinking are different depending on a person's size, weight, sex, as well as food and alcohol consumed. Effects from drinking can cause dizziness, nausea, thirst, slurred speech, disturbed sleep, and vomiting. Alcohol impairs judgment and coordination, causes aggressive acts like domestic violence and child abuse. Prolonged use of alcohol can also lead to addiction, producing withdrawal symptoms. Drinking can cause tremors, hallucinations and convulsions. Permanent damage to vital organs can occur in the brain and liver. Mothers who drink during pregnancy may give their infants fetal alcohol syndrome, causing mental retardation and other irreversible physical abnormalities. These drugs are legal for adults, but yet have caused a lot of damage to millions of Americans. Theses people are generally adults, that are suppose to be responsible. They aren't making wise choices when they abuse the drug, but the ones who are wise aren't effected. The same goes for marijuana. It is illegal to use because of the people who once abused it, which led to suspicion of it's use. The health dangers steaming from marijuana use are less or equal to smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol.


Everyone in this country is born with the right to make decisions. We all have choices, but how we make them is important. If we continue to doubt others, or even discriminate against them, we will always be in constant battle. The word "freedom" is suddenly followed by thousands of rules and exceptions. If we make things that can harm individuals illegal, is it really stopping it. Are we really thinking about what is out there now to legally screw up lives isn't doing the job already? Let it be our choice, let it be our right, make it legal to be free to make our own choices. If we could just take a moment to think about all the madness in our world, the freedom to smoke pot is just a tiny seed. That is what marijuana comes from, a seed. It is a natural plant, which somehow along the way got miss-understood. Bibliography


Sources Partnership for a Drug-Free America, Surveys, Attitude tracking studies http//www.drugfreeamerica.org/newscenter/factsheets/pats.html The Birmingham News, Val Walton, News staff writer (June 1, 000) The Arizona Republic, "A losing Drug War", Pat Flannery and Dennis Wagner, (Sunday, June 4, 000) Washington Hemp Education Network (W.H.E.N) Compare legal drugs with illegal drugs "Prohibition Ensures Misuse" (November , 16) http//www.olywa.net/when/part14.html Donald Tashkin, Physician, New England Journal of Medicine "Is Frequent Marijuana Smoking Hazardous to Health" "Cannabis 177" Ann. Intern. Med. pg.5-4 (178) "Respiratory Status of Habitual Marijuana Smokers" pg.6-706 (Nov 180) Nicholas Cozzi, "Effects of Water Filtration on Marijuana Smoke A literature Review" Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies Newsletter, Vol. IV # (1) Survey on Hawaii's war on pot done by Honolulu Advertiser, April 1, 14 Found at http//www.norml.org/facts/myths/myth18.html Norman, Salyard and Mahoney "An Evaluation of Pre-employment Drug Testing" from Journal of Applied Psychology Pg.6- (10) Most facts were found at Http//www.norml.org What is Marijuana? http//www.teenchallenge.com Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report, Caroline Wolf Harlow, Ph.D. BJS Statistician (April 18) Office of National Drug Control Policy, Drug Policy Information Clearinghouse fact sheet Barry R. McCaffrey, Director http//www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov, or call, 1-800-666-, (March 000) Social Issues Resources Series "A Losing Battle" article found in Drugs-SIRS, West View Library, Clara Germany, staff writer of Christian Monitor (11)


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Tuesday, September 10, 2019

Universe

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Not since Galileo turned his telescope towards the heavens in 1610 has any event so changed our understanding of the universe as the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope. Hubble orbits 600 kilometers (75 miles) above Earth, working around the clock to unlock the secrets of the Universe. It uses excellent pointing precision, powerful optics, and state-of-the-art instruments to provide stunning views of the Universe that cannot be made using ground-based telescopes or other satellites. Hubble was originally designed in the 170s and launched in 10. Hubble is the first scientific mission of any kind that is specifically designed for routine servicing by spacewalking astronauts. It has a visionary, modular design which allows the astronauts to take it apart, replace worn out equipment and upgrade instruments. These periodic service calls make sure that Hubble produces first-class science using cutting-edge technology. Each time a science instrument in Hubble is replaced, it increases Hubble scientific power by a factor of 10 or greater. Every day, Hubble archives to 5 gigabytes of data and delivers between 10 and 15 gigabytes to astronomers all over the world.


The Hubble Space Telescopes science instruments are cameras, spectrographs, and fine guidance sensors work either together or individually to bring us stunning images from the farthest reaches of space. Each instrument was designed to observe the universe in a unique way. "The Wide Field and Planetary Camera is the workhorse instrument behind nearly all of the most famous Hubble pictures." (Ref.7) As Hubbles main camera, it is used to observe just about everything. WFPC is the telescopes main camera. It observes just about everything, recording razor-sharp images of faraway objects in relatively broad views. Its 48 filters allow scientists to study precise wavelengths of light and to sense a range of wavelengths from ultraviolet to near-infrared light. WFPC doesnt use film to record its images. Instead, four postage stamp-sized pieces of high-tech circuitry called Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) collect information from stars and galaxies to make photographs. These detectors are very sensitive to the extremely faint light of distant galaxies. They can see objects that are 1,000 million times fainter than the naked eye can see. "Less sensitive CCDs are now in some videocassette recorders and all of the new digital cameras." (Ref. ) CCDs are electronic circuits composed of light-sensitive picture elements (pixels), tiny cells that, placed together, resemble a screen-door mesh. Each of the four CCDs contains 640,000 pixels. The light collected by each pixel is translated into a number. These numbers "all ,560,000 of them" (Ref.) are sent to ground-based computers, which convert them into an image. The unique WFPC design results in the stair-step appearance of many of its images. The heart of WFPC is a trio of wide-field detectors and a high-resolution planetary camera. Although the planetary camera can see only a small region of the sky, by compacting the same number of pixels into a smaller area results in finer-detailed images. The difference between the wide-field detectors and the planetary camera is like the difference between a wide-angle lens and a telephoto lens.


The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) is Hubbles heat sensor. Its sensitivity to infrared light makes it useful for observing objects obscured by interstellar gas and dust for peering into deepest space. NICMOS allows astronomers to use Hubbles exquisite detail to open an important window of the electromagnetic spectrum. The instruments three cameras each with different fields of view are specially designed to see objects in the near-infrared wavelengths, which are slightly longer than the wavelengths of visible light "human eyes cannot see infrared light" (Ref. 5). Many secrets about the birth of stars, solar systems, and galaxies are revealed in infrared light, which can penetrate the interstellar gas and dust that block visible light. In addition, light from the most distant objects in the universe shifts into the infrared wavelengths. By studying objects and phenomena in this spectral region, astronomers probe our universes past, present, and future, learn how galaxies, stars, and planetary systems form, and reveal a great deal about our universes basic nature. As a camera for recording visible light must be dark inside to avoid exposure to unwanted light, a camera for recording infrared light must be cold inside to avoid exposure to unwanted light in the form of heat. To make sure that NICMOS is recording infrared light from space "as opposed to heat created by its own electronics" (Ref. 6), the sensitive infrared detectors in NICMOS must operate at very cold temperatures below 1 degrees Fahrenheit, or 77 degrees Kelvin. The instruments detectors used to be cooled inside a cryogenic dewar (a thermally insulated container much like a thermos bottle). When NICMOS was installed in 17, the dewar contained a 0-pound block of nitrogen ice. The dewar, which successfully cooled the detectors for about two years, ran out of coolant prematurely. NICMOS will be rechilled during Servicing Mission B with a cryocooler a machine that operates much like a household refrigerator.


The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) is a versatile instrument that can act somewhat like a prism, separating light from the cosmos into its component colors. This provides a wavelength fingerprint of the object being observed, which tells us about its temperature, chemical composition, density, and motion. Spectrographic observations also reveal changes in celestial objects as the universe evolves. STIS spans ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths. Astronomers can use STIS to hunt for black holes. "The light emitted by stars and gas orbiting the center of a galaxy appears redder when moving away from us (redshift), and bluer when coming toward us (blueshift)" (Ref. 4). STIS is looking for redshifted material on one side of the suspected black hole and blueshifted material on the other, indicating that this material is orbiting an object at very high speeds. STIS can sample 500 points along a celestial object simultaneously. This means that many regions in a planets atmosphere or many stars within a galaxy can be recorded in one exposure, vastly improving Hubbles speed and efficiency.


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The Faint Object Camera (FOC) records high-resolution images of faint celestial objects in deep space. The FOC has the sharpest vision of all the science instruments. It serves as Hubbles telephoto lens recording the most detailed images over a small field of view. The FOC was replaced with the Advanced Camera for Surveys in early 00. The FOCs resolution allows Hubble to single out individual stars in distant star clusters. Resolution is the ability to distinguish two points of light as separate and distinct. In space, the instrument can distinguish between objects that are 0.05 arcseconds apart which is roughly the width of a human hair viewed from a distance of 1 kilometer. The FOC directs light down one of two optical pathways. The light enters a detector after passing through one or more filters, which permit only specific wavelengths of light to pass through. By selecting very specific wavelength ranges, scientists can look for specific features, such as the hottest stars in a particular cluster. The detector intensifies the image and then records it, much like a video camera. Images of faint objects can be built up over long exposure times. The total image is converted into digital data, transmitted to Earth, and then reconstructed. Since FOC can make high-resolution observations of faint sources at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, in can study star clusters, examine galaxies and faint objects (such as quasars), and look for small details of celestial objects. The FOC was built by the European Space Agency.


The Fine Guidance Sensors are targeting devices that lock onto guide stars and measure their positions relative to the object being viewed. Adjustments based on these precise readings keep Hubble pointed in the right direction. The sensors also are used to perform celestial measurements. Adjustments based on these constant, minute measurements keep Hubble pointed precisely in the right direction.


Hubble is, in principle, free to roll about its optical axis. This freedom is limited, however, by the need to keep sunlight shining on the solar arrays, and by a thermal design that assumes that the Sun always heats the same side of the telescope. Hubbles pointing control system uses the Fine Guidance Sensors to point the telescope at a target with an accuracy of 0.01 arcsec. The sensors detect when the telescope drifts even a miniscule amount and return it to its target. This gives Hubble the ability to remain pointed at that target with no more than 0.007 arcsec of deviation over long periods of time. The Fine Guidance Sensors can provide star positions that are about 10 times more precise than those observed from a ground-based telescope.


Although HST operates around the clock, not all of its time is spent observing. Each orbit lasts about 5 minutes, with time allocated for housekeeping functions and for observations. Housekeeping (Ref. 6) functions includes turning the telescope to acquire a new target, or avoid the Sun or Moon, switching communications antennas and data transmission modes, receiving command loads and downlinking data, calibrating and similar activities. When STScI completes its master observing plan, the schedule is forwarded to Goddards Space Telescope Operations Control Center (STOCC), where the science and housekeeping plans are merged into a detailed operations schedule. Each event is translated into a series of commands to be sent to the onboard computers. Computer loads are uplinked several times a day to keep the telescope operating efficiently. When possible two scientific instruments are used simultaneously to observe adjacent target regions of the sky. For example, while a spectrograph is focused on a chosen star or nebula, the WF/PC (pronounced wiff-pik) can image a sky region offset slightly from the main viewing target. During observations the Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) track their respective guide stars to keep the telescope pointed steadily at the right target.


If an astronomer desires to be present during the observation, there is a console at STScI and another at the STOCC, where monitors display images or other data as the observations occurs. Some limited real-time commanding for target acquisition or filter changing is performed at these stations, if the observation program has been set up to allow for it, but spontaneous control is not possible. Engineering and scientific data from HST, as well as uplinked operational commands, are transmitted through the Tracking Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) system and its companion ground station at White Sands, New Mexico. Up to 4 hours of commands can be stored in the onboard computers. Data can be broadcast from HST to the ground stations immediately or stored on tape and downlinked later. The observer on the ground can examine the raw images and other data within a few minutes for a quick-look analysis. Within 4 hours, GSFC formats the data for delivery to the STScI. STScI is responsible for data processing (calibration, editing, distribution, and maintenance of the data for the scientific community). Competition is keen for HST observing time. Only one of every ten proposals is accepted. This unique space-based observatory is operated as an international research center; as a resource for astronomers world-wide.


During the First Servicing Mission in December 1, the astronauts installed the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR) in the fourth axial bay (in place of the High Speed Photometer). COSTAR deployed corrective reflecting optics in the optical paths in front of the Faint Object Camera, thus removing the effects of the primary mirrors spherical aberration. In addition the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC) was replaced by the WFPC, which contains internal optics to correct the spherical aberration. Also, the Hubbles original Wide Field and Planetary Camera was replaced with WFPC. NICMOS, was installed in the Hubble Space Telescope during the 17 Second Servicing Mission. Also, STIS was installed in the Hubble Space Telescope during the 17 second servicing mission. In 1 the Servicing Mission A astronauts replace the faulty transmitter with a spare. In 00 the HST B servicing mission added a camera that will increase the imaging capability 10 times over its current capability.


Hubble Discovers Black Holes in Unexpected Places


The previously undiscovered black holes provide an important link that sheds light on the way in which black holes grow. These new black holes were found in the cores of glittering, beehive swarms of stars called globular star clusters, which orbit our Milky Way and other galaxies. The black hole in globular cluster M15 is 4,000 times more massive than our Sun. G1 a much larger globular cluster, harbors a heftier black hole, about 0,000 times more massive than our Sun. These two globular star clusters, M15 and G1, harbor hundreds of thousands of stars. But deep within their dense cores is an unexpected guest a class of intermediate-sized black holes. Black holes are invisible, but the probing eye of NASAs Hubble Space Telescope found them by measuring the velocities of stars whirling around the crowded cores. The new findings promise a better understanding of how galaxies and globular clusters first formed billions of years ago. Globular star clusters contain the oldest stars in the universe. If these clusters have black holes now, then they most likely had black holes when they formed billions of years ago. The Hubble telescope photograph of M15 was taken December 18 by the Wide Field and Planetary Camera . Hubbles Wide Field and Planetary Camera also snapped the image of G1, in July 14.


A Wheel within a Wheel


The entire galaxy is about 10,000 light-years wide, which is slightly larger than our Milky Way Galaxy. The blue ring, which is dominated by clusters of young, massive stars, contrasts sharply with the yellow nucleus of mostly older stars. What appears to be a gap separating the two stellar populations may actually contain some star clusters that are almost too faint to see. Curiously, an object that bears an uncanny resemblance to Hoags Object can be seen in the gap at the one oclock position. The object is probably a background ring galaxy. "This unusual galaxy was discovered in 150 by astronomer Art Hoag" (Ref. 8). Hoag thought the smoke-ring-like object resembled a planetary nebula, the glowing remains of a Sun-like star. But he quickly discounted that possibility, suggesting that the mysterious object was most likely a galaxy. Observations in the 170s confirmed this prediction, though many of the details of Hoags galaxy remain a mystery. The galaxy is 600 million light-years away in the constellation Serpens. The Wide Field and Planetary Camera took this image on July , 001.


Quaoar


"Quaoar is about 800 miles (100 kilometers) in diameter and is about half the size of Pluto" (Ref. 1). Like Pluto, Quaoar dwells in the Kuiper belt, an icy debris field of comet-like bodies extending 7 billion miles beyond Neptunes orbit. Quaoar is the farthest object in the solar system ever to be resolved by a telescope. It is about 4 billion miles (6.5 billion kilometers) from Earth, more than 1 billion miles farther than Pluto. The Hubble photo does not show details of Quaoars icy surface because the object is too far away. The photograph was made by assembling 16 pictures of the object. Observations were made July 5, 00 and Aug. 1, 00.


The Best View of Mars


The Hubble Telescope has captured the best view of Mars ever obtained from Earth. Frosty white water ice clouds and swirling orange dust storms above a vivid rusty landscape reveal Mars as a dynamic planet in this sharpest view ever obtained by an Earth-based telescope. The Earth-orbiting Hubble telescope snapped this picture on June 6, when Mars was "approximately 4 million miles (68 million km) from Earth" (Ref.1) its closest approach to our planet since 188. Hubble can see details as small as 10 miles across.


Quasars


The Hubble Telescope cleared up the mystery of quasars. It confirmed that quasars are actually active galactic nuclei in distant galaxies and are powered by black holes. "Discovered only years ago, quasars are among the most baffling objects in the universe because of their small size and prodigious energy output." (Ref. ) Quasars are not much bigger than Earths solar system but pour out 100 to 1,000 times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred billion stars.


The Birth of Stars


Hubbles unprecedented views of star birth reveal the diverse and complex processes that influence star formation. They show that planet-forming dust disks surrounding young stars are common throughout the galaxy. Hubble was the first telescope to reveal the internal structures of these disks, which suggest the presence of newly formed planets.


In conclusion, the Hubble Space Telescope is a unique astronomical observatory. From its vantage point 60 kilometers above the surface of the Earth, it looks out into space with a .4-meter primary mirror, which provides unprecedented image resolution from 10 nanometers (near-ultraviolet) to 500 nanometers (near-infrared). The near vacuum of space affords the HST with an unfair advantage over ground-based observatories. The Earths atmosphere absorbs a great deal of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, and distorts visible light images as well. In the upper reaches of the atmosphere, the HST is able to capture images and spectra from distant stars which would be difficult or impossible to obtain from the ground.


Mankind has spent many centuries staring at the heavens, wondering what exists out beyond this world. One question that has fascinated humans since the beginning of time is Is there life out in space, another planet that possesses forests and lakes, dogs and cats, sentient beings that have the ability to reason as we do? Another is What are those lights in the sky? Are they holes in the fabric or are they gods flying around? Mankind has strived to develop devices and procedures to answer these questions. One such device was the telescope.


The first telescopes were primitive tubes with pieces of glass at each end and used the principal of light refraction. This is a way of increasing the amount of light present, which in turn allows for more visible objects, which would not be typically seen by the naked eye. Galileo was the first well-known astronomer to use a telescope to survey the heavens. He even studied the sun so much, he went blind! The refractor telescope is still a very popular instrument with modern astronomers.


There are some downfalls that are inherent to refractor telescopes. During the manufacturing process, opticians design refracting lenses with a curve in the lens. When someone looks through a piece of curved glass, the image on the other side is usually distorted; the amount of distortion is usually dependent on the distance the lens is from the object being sighted in. Just imagine how much possible distortion could be present when looking at distant planets or solar systems! Another problem the opticians face is that a piece of curved glass with the size necessary to view far away objects has an extreme amount of weight and requires some serious support to hold it up. Also, the gravitational pull on the glass itself will warp it over time.


Another early version of telescope was the reflecting telescope, developed by Sir Isaac Newton. This type of telescope relied on the use of mirrors to reflect the light by use of a parabolic mirror. This compensated for the distortions that were caused by the curved lenses of refractor telescopes.


A major disadvantage of reflector telescopes has been that the secondary mirror is often obstructing the field of view.


Another major obstacle that has hindered the study of space by earth bound telescopes has been the atmosphere and disagreeable weather patterns that have plagued astronomers for centuries. When it was cloudy, the conventional telescope would not be as effective.


Another type of telescope used is the radio telescope. This type of telescope uses a dish to reflect signals to a focal point, which amplifies them, so they can be analyzed.


The Hubble Space Telescope has provided scientists with a very efficient and accurate amount of data, archiving an average of to 5 gigabytes of data daily. Deployed in 10 (from a space shuttle mission), it circles the Earth every 7 minutes, at an altitude of approximately 600 kilometers (70 miles). It is a valuable source of vital information for astronomers worldwide, providing them with 10 to 15 gigabytes of data.


The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was designed with upgrading in mind. It has a modular design, meaning that it is divided up into sections, which can be individually removed and replaced with improved technology. This allows for easy maintenance and upgrades by space shuttle crewmembers, which perform these operations by space walk.


The HST is completely self-powered, utilizing solar energy harnessed by the large solar panels mounted to its sides. These prominent panels rotate slowly, to maintain an alignment with the sun. When the HST is in the Earth's shadow, it uses energy that it has stored in batteries to power it until it sees the sun again. Each instrument on the Hubble is designed to use a minimal amount of energy (about 150 watts) to conserve energy that may needed at a later date.


Telescopes have provided not only astronomy, but many other scientific disciplines with much needed and breakthrough information over the centuries. The astronomical discoveries in the last fifty years alone have proven that telescopes are one of the greatest inventions ever developed. Comins, Neil F., and William J. Kaufmann III. Discovering the Universe. Ed. Patrick Farace. New York W. H. Freeman and Company, 10


Please note that this sample paper on universe is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on universe, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on universe will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.


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Current role of women in conflict prevention

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Current Discourse on the Role of Women in Conflict Prevention and


Conflict Transformation a Critique


Much of the recent discourse surrounding the role of women in conflict prevention and conflict transformation is shot through with contradictory assumptions used as the basis for the argument that women should play a greater role, women's voices should be heard more and so on in these processes. While the desire for a more humane politics, for the insertion of the legitimacy of emotions and an ethic of care into our deliberations about the causes of conflict and its possible resolution, is to be welcomed, we need to theorise with greater care why we associate these positive social goods with women and what we mean when we talk about "women". We need also to look at the implications of doing so and to ask ourselves why these values have been marginalized in the first instance. Calls for conflict prevention strategies to take into account a "gendered perspective" (and what is usually meant here is "women's perspective" rather than a gender perspective) lack a clear theoretical grounding and have become a somewhat hollow talisman whose real meaning is unclear. Constantly repeating the refrain of the absence of a "woman's perspective" tells us little about what such a perspective might be and is falsely universalising in its premise. These calls draw from a variety of conflicting theoretical trends ranging from liberal pluralism through to standpoint feminism. What they fail to do is to take into account the post-structuralist critique of such perspectives which denies the unitary subject of both liberal and feminist accounts.


The Liberal Pluralist Impulse


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At the heart of the liberal account of politics is the autonomous individual, freely choosing and motivated in those choices by self-interest. Key to this account is the distinction between a private sphere of personal, subjective interests which is mediated by the competition of the market and a public sphere where the aim is to try to rule according to the supposedly apolitical idea of a common good. In the liberal pluralist version of this account different groups ought to have differential influence in public life according to the degree to which they are impacted on by a particular issue "Within the liberal logic of self-interest, people are more likely to exercise their agency as citizens over matters that affect them most directly" . Embedded in the rhetorical claims made in many of the calls for a greater involvement of women in conflict resolution, for a "gendered perspective", is the idea that women have a particular interest in peace. In a variety of forums where the need to "mainstream a gender perspective in conflict resolution" is reiterated again and again, the fact that women and children are the most vulnerable group when conflict erupts and are frequently the main victims of armed conflict is cited as the preface to a call for the greater involvement of women in conflict resolution structures . Women are said to be the mothers, wives, grandmothers, lovers of the soldiers who are sent to die in conflict; women are said to suffer the most from war and therefore to have the greatest interest in ending it. This then is the liberal pluralist idea of the right to a greater representation in the processes governing conflict resolution deriving from a particular interest in the resolution of conflict.


A further version of liberalism is the associationalist idea which requires a strengthening of the voluntary associations that make up civil society as a counterpoint to state power. "The civil society argument departs from conventional liberal democracy by according voluntary bodies a primary role in organising social life, rather than an ancillary function to government. These smaller private entities, which may or may not be governed by democratic principles, are viewed as more flexible and responsive to community needs" .


In current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution both liberal pluralist and associationalist perspectives are common. Much of this discourse arises from the non-state sector from aid organisations, conflict resolution bodies, United Nations subsidiaries, and other civil society formations. Much of the discourse implies that, left to states alone, conflict resolution and transformation is unlikely to succeed, that what is needed is to base these efforts in the lives of "real people" from which the state is seen to be relatively removed. In particular, the state, and formal political processes, it is implied, are the domain of men and the already empowered. What is needed are other voices, in particular, the voices of women.


The Critique of Liberal Pluralism


Yet inherent in the call for a "gendered approach" to conflict resolution and for the "perspective of women" to be included in conflict transformation, is also fundamentally a critique of liberal individualism. Opponents have argued that far from the ideal of the neutral state which referees between conflicting interests as expressed by freely choosing autonomous subjects, the state has become the instrument of the already empowered, that the separation between public and private which lies at liberalism's heart is illegitimate and that not all interests in society are in an equal position to assert themselves.


Each of these critiques is suggested but seldom explicitly stated in elements of the current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution. If the call is to look to formations of civil society for an energy, a richness, a new perspective to be brought to bear on conflict resolution processes, then implicit in this is the idea that while women are often absent from formal state structures they are often to be found in organisations of civil society. More than this, it is implied that the state, male arena that it is, is often incapable of taking into account women's perspectives and interests.


But in another form, the discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution offers a more fundamental critique of liberal pluralism than this. As seen above, one form of critique is simply to say that it is all very well to propose many different groups in society with different perspectives and the ideal is that each perspective is fully expressed. This leaves out notions of power, race, gender and so on. Implied in this critique is the rationale that if one could cancel out these inequalities of expression, the notion may well be valid. But is this really what the proponents of a greater role for women's voices in conflict resolution wish to say? In some versions it appears that what is being said is something more fundamental. Rather than simply postulating that women's voices should be included because they are an interest in society that is important and has unjustifiably been excluded with unfortunate consequences, there appears to be implied in many versions of this discourse something more far-reaching. Rather than one valid perspective among many, there is the idea underlying much of what is said, that women's perspective is the perspective that is needed. Women, it is often implied, are peaceable, caring, loving, kind and we need a world in which these values are paramount. Conflict resolution requires a reinsertion of these values onto the top of our political agendas and we do so by including women.


While pluralism, as Mouffe has pointed out means the "absence of a single substantive idea of the good life", many arguments for the inclusion of women's voices in conflict resolution then, seem to hold implicit in them a very particular substantive idea of the good life. Women's perspectives are not just held as one among many valid ideas but rather are implicitly viewed as offering a better, more peaceful way of ordering social life, a better way of seeing conflict, its roots and causes and thus a better way of solving it, along with a better way of living after conflict. This brings us to the next set of implicit assumptions in this discourse, namely its essentialising assumptions regarding who and what women are.


Standpoint feminism


Current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution and conflict transformation owes many of its fundamental assumptions to what has been termed "standpoint feminism". This perspective includes the following assumptions


· the claim that philosophical as well as social-scientific theories of the past have been cognitively inadequate because they have failed to take into account the standpoint, activities and experiences of women;


· to correct gender blindness it is necessary to identify a set of experiences, activities, as well as patterns of thinking, feeling and acting which can be characterised as 'female';


· such experiences, activities, etc. are a consequence of women's social position or of their position within the sexual division of labour; whereas men have been active in the public sphere of production, politics, war and science, women's activities have been confined to the domestic/reproductive and private spheres;


· the task of feminist theory is to make this sphere of activity and its consequences for human life visible, audible and present at the level of theory; feminist theory articulates the implicit, tacit, everyday and non-theorised experiences and activities of women and allows these to come to the level of consciousness;


· by aiding the articulation of female experience, feminist theory not only engages in a critique of science and theory but it also contributes to the process of transforming women's consciousness by giving female activities and experiences public presence and legitimacy.


These points correlate very well with what is being said in the political discourse on women in conflict resolution


· it is claimed that conflict resolution practice and theory have failed to take into account the standpoint, activities and experiences of women;


· it is argued that the dominant discourse of conflict resolution and prevention has been guilty of gender blindness thus excluding women's experiences, activities, patterns of thinking, feeling and acting;


· women are seen to hold these different perspectives because of their different social position; women have a perspective drawn from their lives as mothers, carers, wives and they have been relatively absent from the realm of production, politics, war and science;


· the task of a gendered perspective in conflict resolution practice and theory is to make the lived experiences, activities and perspectives of women part of the agenda of conflict resolution.


The Post-Structuralist Critique


Poststructuralist theorists such as Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe have argued that each person belongs to numerous overlapping groups and holds multiple intersecting identities . In contrast to the fundamentals of standpoint feminism this is a non-essentialist view of politics. In contrast to the unitary agent both of liberalism and of standpoint feminism, the social agent is conceived of as constituted by a multiplicity of subject positions whose articulation is always precarious and temporary. In this view, then, identities (including both gender and sex) are socially constructed with no basis of "givenness" in nature, anatomy or some other anthropological.


Post-structuralist ideas of the radically decentred, multiple-layered subject have thus led to a very fundamental critique of the assumptions of standpoint feminism. Yet the discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution appears entirely to be situated in the paradigms of liberalism, pluralism and standpoint feminism and to have taken little cognisance of this critique. Yet whether or not women can be said to be the bearers of a different and distinctive set of values is the central debate in contemporary feminist theory. As Benhabib points out, "there is not a single organisation with the agenda of which a majority of women would agree … Relishing in diversity, basking in fragmentation, enjoying the play of differences, and celebrating opacity, fracturing, and heteronomy is a dominant mood of contemporary feminist theory and practice" .


Poor and working class women, lesbians, black women, rural women have argued that the standpoint feminist starting point fails to illuminate their lives or address their problems. This is a vital critique for the discourse on conflict resolution to take into account, addressing itself as it does chiefly to poor women in poor countries. The assumption of a universal female dependence and confinement to the domestic sphere is seen as a false extrapolation from the experience of white, middle-class, heterosexual women situated primarily in the North . This "contemporary mood" of feminist theory and practice poses an enormous challenge to those who would wish to see various forms of political activity based on the idea that women have something in common, in this instance, a common perspective on peace and society which has hitherto been absent from the conflict resolution discourse and needs to be inserted.


Meeting the Post-structuralist Challenge


While it seems empirically difficult to argue with the critique of standpoint feminism as privileging a narrow section of women's interests and experiences and generalising these to incorporate all women when we use terms like "women's perspective", this is a politically enfeebling position to arrive at, entailing as it does, the loss of the female subject. In response to the post-structuralist challenge, various attempts have been made to shore up the idea of a common women's perspective. One attempted answer has been from the literature which casts women as mothers. Much of this literature comes from the peace movement where it is/was supposed that women were somehow more predisposed to peace as a result of their ability to, or actual experience of, giving life. Yet it has been a characteristic of this literature that it ends up talking not about "women" at all but about certain kinds of roles or practices. Thus it is not women who are more peaceable or kindly or nurturing, but mothers. And it is not only women who can be mothers but the role of mothering itself which renders certain attitudes available to one -- and in principle such roles could be performed either by men or women . It is the values and experiences that are affirmed, then, not a particular type of person.


Another (related) attempted answer has come from the literature on care. Carol Gilligan argues that an "ethic of care and responsibility" characterises women's moral voices. She claims that women are more likely to display than men the values of care, responsiveness to the needs of others, the ability for empathy and for taking the standpoint of the concrete other . Again this literature ends up eschewing essentialist notions which make women uniquely caring to talk about the ethic of care itself as a good ethic rather than about which people have this ethic and what the gender of such people might be .


While the idea of women all collectively possessing and articulating certain fundamental interests and perspectives is impossible to sustain in the face of the post-structuralist challenge posed to standpoint feminism, it may be possible to reactivate the notion of a common good, a shared human vision (as opposed to a woman's vision). It may be that we are able, for example, to claim that whatever our cultural, sexual, class, race, regional, gender or other (intersecting) identity components, it is self-evident that human relationships characterised by mutuality, caring, empathy and compassion are more desirable than relationships based on competition, mistrust, antagonism, violence and aggression.


This is the move that Benhabib makes when she talks of a vision of feminism "which accepts that the furthering of one's capacity for autonomous agency is only possible within the confines of a solidaristic community that sustains one's identity through mutual recognition …. Distinct from the language of eternal contestation, conflict and haggling over scarce resources, the primary virtue in politics is the creation of an enlarged mentality" . So rather than the goal of a good politics being the creation of a neutral state which presides over perpetual conflict, the aim is unashamedly to give a particular content and meaning to the good life that is being proposed, unashamedly to avow a politics of mutual compassion rather than narrow self-interest. It is true that the virtues in question have at some points been associated with the "feminine" while competition, aggression and violence have historically been associated with the "masculine" but the idea here is to recognise that these are human virtues and human ills, they do not adhere timelessly, biologically or necessarily to any particular gender or to any particular type of man or woman. Rather, these are virtues which are always precarious, vulnerable to corruption and in need of our ongoing and dutiful attention so that they may be privileged in public life. The point here is that it is more helpful straightforwardly to attest to the sorts of ways we want people to be rather than essentialising a notion of "women" who are then postulated as the harbingers of these virtues which have hitherto been absent from public life. Unless we believe that men are as capable of these virtues as women (and contrariwise that women are as capable as men of the vices of greed, aggression and violence), then both our hopes for more peaceable human relations and the probability of our hopes succeeding must likely be dashed.


This response to the post-modernist critique moves in the opposite direction from the latter critics, taking as it does, an avowedly non-relativist stance and returning to the unpopular notion of a common good as being the goal of public life. Rather than accepting a notion of human society as consisting in ever more particularised individual interests, it entails as Hannah Arendt has suggested, a recognition of at least the potential for agreement with others, whatever our gender, class, race, regional or other identity; it suggests that the capacity for imagination with which human beings are uniquely endowed provides us with the potential for "an enlarged way of thinking which … knows how to transcend its individual limitations" . This is an idea taken up by amongst others the philosopher Thomas Nagel who argues that the appropriate form that moral reasoning must necessarily take is for the individual to view a particular matter partly from her own standpoint but partly also by imaginatively placing herself in the shoes of the other persons affected by a particular course of action .


Conclusion


Simply to "include" women or women's voices (and these, it must be remembered will not be representative in any way of a general category of "women" since no such thing exists) in a politics that is flawed and based on unsatisfactory ethical and moral bases will have little transformative effect. As Dhaliwal has pointed out, such inclusionary attempts do little more than reaffirm a "hegemonic core to which the margins are added without any significant destabilisation of that core". The add women and stir project serves to "valorise the very centre that is problematic to begin with" . Formal legal rights to equality of inclusion of men and women are likely to have little impact in the absence of the creation of new and deep-rooted forms of political culture. It is moreover impossible to create the latter in the absence of a positive vision which affirms certain values and disavows others. Yet the positive affirming of particular values and rejection of others, say in public education, is precisely what is unpopular among many of the very proponents of conflict resolution who would wish to see a greater role for women. Current dominant perspectives on "multiculturalism" lead some to the conclusion that any positive moral vision is necessarily flawed and that it is never justifiable to affirm certain values and deny others. Because of this shyness about what is viewed as the relativity of value standpoints, these proponents have to introduce a substantive and positive value affirmation through the back door as it were by suggesting that if we include women, then we shall include the kinds of values and points of view that have thus far been missing. Why not simply talk about these values for their own sake, as human values which are to be affirmed and positively fostered through education and the formation of a new political culture?


This is in stark contrast to some recent theorists of radical democracy who, in focusing on the need to include various people in the decision-making of a democracy land up in what appears to this writer to be an absurd position where truth matters less than participation "the right to decide takes precedence over making the right decisions, which is why who participates in a decision is as important as what is decided" . This seems patently ridiculous. While there are certainly legitimate issues of justice and equality in relation to the unequal numbers of men and women in structures of political power, including conflict resolution and transformation processes, an exclusive focus on who is present and who is absent risks confusing the presence of certain types of people with the presence of certain types of substantive values and ideas. The inclusion of women is no panacea and can easily become a readily achievable substitute for the much more difficult process of negotiating and inculcating a positive peace agenda which includes gender sensitivity but also a whole lot more.


References


Benhabib, S. 16. Democracy and Difference Contesting the


Boundaries of the Political. Princeton, N.J.


Princeton University Press.


Nagel, T. 186. The View from Nowhere. New York Oxford


University Press.


Ruddick, S. 15. Maternal Thinking Towards a Politics of Peace.


Boston, Mass. Beacon Press.


Sevenhuisjen, S. 18. Citizenship and the Ethics of Care Feminist


Considerations on Justice,Morality and Politics.


London Routledge; New York Dutton.


Trend, D. (ed.). 16. Radical Democracy Identity, Citizenship and the


State. New York Routledge.


United Nations. 00. Security Council Open Meeting on Women, Peace


and Security, July 5 (various documents).


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Friday, September 6, 2019

Early childhood Education

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Description


The lesson I chose to analyze was from my observation of an Early Childhood


Special Education Class. The class was beginning a thematic unit on dinosaurs.


To start the unit the teacher read the book, The Berenstain Bears and the


Help with essay on Early childhood Education


Missing Dinosaur Bone. The book was read on the rug with seven students who


disabilities range from being autistic to having a learning disability. There


was no display of any other dinosaur books around the room. Upon finishing the


book the teacher had materials ready for the students to make a stuffed pre-cut


dinosaur with the use of newspaper. Their next job was to color and cut out


body parts of a Triceratop and paste them on cardboard. This was just day 1 of


a half day of Early Childhood Special Education Class.


Day - The teacher had the students cut out upper/lower case Nn. They were then


suppose to find the letter n in magazines and paste it to there construction


sheet. Getting back to the dinosaur unit, the teacher had students finish


stuffing their paper dinosaurs and paint a picture of a dinosaur only using four


colors (green, red, orange, brown). The last activity of the day consisted of


the students counting and graphing the dinosaurs.


Day - Today the students were given a booklet on different types of dinosaurs,


where they were expected to color each dinosaur and copy the dinosaue name.


Day 4- Many students had to complete their dinosaur booklets and then create a


textured dinosaur using sandpaper under the picture of the dinosaur. They were


then expected to create a habitat of where the dinosaurs would live with green


trees and brown tissue paper to represent the bark of the tree. Next, on the


agenda was to create giant dinosaur foot prints on butcher paper with a sponge.


Day 5- Show students how tall a dinosaur was by marking it off in the hallway


(0 feet long).


Critique


To begin with there was no consistent flow from one lesson to the next. The


actual room should have been covered with big dinosaur foot prints from corner


to corner. This would of grabbed all of the students attention in a heart


beat. The teacher could have also turned her room into a forest where the


dinosaurs would have lived by making huge trees out of construction paper with


tall grass. After grabbing their attention with all these visual props, she


could of then assessed their prior knowledge of what they do know about


dinosaurs using a web on a board with simple words (big, teeth, meat). The


teacher did a poor job in making the students focus on the subject at hand which


was about dinosaurs. The activities also took up a majority of the teachers


time because she was doing all the work for the students. Some of the


activities were not child centered. There was no anticipatory set. She began


it with reading a book that most of the kids could not sit still for. I would


of displayed a wide arrange of books (big books) with all sorts of dinosaurs.


The students would of listened to the story on a tape with dinosaur noises.


Barney is a great dinosaur to bring into this activity.


For the actual activities, I would have had two centers a day that rotated


around the theme of dinosaurs.


One center would focus on the three different kinds of dinosaurs and the


students are expected to cut the dinosaurs out and place them on popsicle sticks


where they can act out how dinosaurs would of moved and the noises they would of


made. Other centers might have the actual dinosaur play figures, where the


students can manipulate them as well as get a visual picture of what they may


have looked like. The use of centers will give the opportunity for the teacher


to work with half of the class in one place while the other half is at another


center with a teachers aid. Other centers can include the children working


with clay to form their own dinosaurs. These centers would have incorporated a


variety of hands on experiences that will stimulate the minds of young


children. That would incorporate Howard Gardners Theory of Multiple


Intelligences, which are identified as being


Linguistic (language)- skills used for reading, writing, listening, and talking


Logical-mathematical - Involves computing numbers, solving logical


puzzles, and thinking scientifically. It combines with


linguistic


intelligence in the solution of mathematical word


problems.


Spatial- Includes the skills necessary for driving a car, piloting a plane, and


figuring


out how to get from one location to another. It is


important in the


visual arts and in playing games like chess where it is


important


to imagine what the board will look like after certain


moves have


been made.


Musical- Involves singing,


playing an instrument, conducting an orchestra,


composing, and


to some extent appreciating music.


Bodily-kinesthetic- Involves


the ability to use the whole body or portions of it in


the solution


to problems or in the construction of objects. It is


used by


dancers, athletes, actors, surgeons and others who use


physical


movement to achieve their goals.


Interpersonal intelligence- Includes both understanding others and acting


upon that understanding. It involves noting distinctions


among


others, becoming aware of what they are thinking or


feeling, and


realizing what their needs might be. It can be expressed


both


verbally and nonverbally through gesture and facial


expression. It


is especially helpful for those engaged in politics,


sales,


psychotherapy, and teaching.


Intrapersonal intelligence- Includes both understanding others and acting


upon that understanding. It involves noting distinctions


among


others, becoming aware of what they are thinking or


feeling, and


realizing what their needs might be. It can be expressed


both


verbally and nonverbally through gesture and facial


expression. It


is especially helpful for those engaged in politics,


sales,


psychotherapy, and teaching.


I would also like to mention that many of the activites were not child centered


at all. The teacher and the aid had to do a majority of the activities. They


were all basically created by the teacher. The children were not creating their


own dinosaurs from paint, tissue paper or clay. The teacher did not explain


everything very well and she helped asebly most of the activities. I am


thinking that the children have to be able to do something on their own. Young


children grow through their experiences. Now if I were the teacher of that


class this is what I would do or how I would plan my week on the teheme of


dinosaurs.


Early Childhood Curriculum


Judith Colbert


Brain Development Research and Your Classroom


You will find that other, more recent scientific studies into


the importance of


early stimulation largely confirm what you regularly observe


in child care


settings. Such studies are valuable because they help you


fully understand the


processes behind what you see as you interact with young


children. On a


practical level, they help you develop strategies that will


make your work more


effective.


Planning for Developmental Stages


When you develop curriculum within your own program, research


findings


remind you of the importance of thinking about the daily


activities you are


planning, especially the activities for the youngest infants


in your care. These


findings validate the concept of developmental


appropriateness for all ages by


reinforcing the need to respect the developing brain and what


it can


accommodate at particular stages.


Planning for Groups


When you make curriculum plans for groups of children,


research results also


remind you that each child within the group is a distinctive


individual. You can


build on what Gardner and others have written about multiple


intelligences and


the many ways that each of us comprehends the world around us


by


considering the variety of individuals in your group and


ensuring that each kind


of intelligence is represented in the plans that you make.


Such ideas are not new to the early childhood community. In


its most recent


position statement on developmentally appropriate practice,


the National


Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)


states that children


demonstrate different modes of knowing and learning and


different ways of


representing what they know (Bredekamp & Copple, 17).


NAEYC cites


Gardners work in its discussion of this position and echoes


his theories in its


teacher guidelines. For example, in fulfilling their role as


educators, teachers


are advised to make plans to enable children to attain key


curriculum goals


across various disciplines such as language arts,


mathematics, social studies,


art, music, physical education, and health (Bredekamp &


Copple, 17).


Assisting Individual Children


Research also shows how curriculum planning and ongoing


observation can be


used to assist individual children. Each childs


intelligence profile is different.


In some cases, you will be called upon to develop curriculum


and teacher


behavior to support a particular childs dominant


intelligence. In others, it will


be necessary to strengthen an area of weakness.


Identifying and Supporting Individual Strengths


Teachers are in a position of providing activities that


support particular


strengths and increase a childs likelihood of success. Such


support is


especially important when a childs dominant intelligence is


not typical of the


group or valued in the culture. Most would agree with Gardner


that North


American culture, and educational practice in particular,


places the highest


value on linguistic intelligence and to a lesser extent on


logical-mathematical


intelligence (11). Individuals with strengths in areas


other than linguistics


often find it difficult to succeed.


Gardner himself shows how early childhood curriculum planners


and teachers


can use their knowledge of multiple intelligences to support


children in the


classroom in a paper he co-authored with Jessica Davis of


Harvards Project


Zero (1). The Arts and Early Childhood Education A


Cognitive


Developmental Portrait of the Young Child as Artist presents


two approaches


to a childs drawing of her family.


The first approach is likely the more typical. The teacher


compliments the child


named Lucy on a lovely drawing, then asks her to tell me


about it. As Lucy


talks, the teacher prints on the top of each figure, My


mother. My father. Me.


My brother. In the space above, the teacher writes Lucys


Family and


whispers in her ear, Nice work. The teacher is supportive,


positive, and


responsive to the childs effort. Yet, as the authors point


out, the teachers


response focuses on language and implies that the drawing


says nothing on


its own. The teachers response suggests, however


indirectly, that words


convey meaning more effectively than the drawing itself. It


says that linguistic


intelligence is superior to artistic (spatial) intelligence,


and that the symbolic


domain of language is more effective than the symbolic domain


of art.


However, each domain is distinctive and fully capable of


expressing meaning.


Davis and Gardner (1) point out that the teacher would


have left a very


different impression by commenting on the action in this


line; by telling the


child, This is a nicely balanced drawing; or by saying,


This drawing is very


strong. By focusing on the aesthetic elements of the


drawing, the teacher


would have introduced Lucy to a vocabulary that could


strengthen her spatial


intelligence and provide a foundation for its further


development.


Identifying and Strengthening Skills


As an early childhood professional, you are also in a


position to observe a


child and to encourage activities which will broaden his or


her skills. As you


watch curriculum unfold within your classroom, it is


important to observe how


each child responds to the task at hand. Is there a variation


that would be


more appropriate for that child? Are there other ways in


which all of the


children could approach a particular task/activity? Are you


ensuring that they


are tapping the potential of as many of their intelligences


as possible?


Once again, research into how the brain works can help you


develop ways of


assisting the children in your care. Many researchers use


information


processing theory to model human thinking after the workings


of a computer.


For example, Kelvin Seiferts summary of research into


cognitive development


reveals differences in the ways that young children process


information in


relation to older children and in relation to each other


(Seifert, 1). These


differences, he believes, have implications for


developmentally appropriate


practice. Teachers are advised to observe how children prefer


to organize new


knowledge and, as a result of their observations, think of


new ways to


introduce unfamiliar topics to them. Instead of organizing


animals according to


biological classes, for example, teachers might present them


by petability.


(Presumably, a kitten is more petable than a frog.) When


considered in


relation to Gardners classifications, such advice means


appealing to the


childrens bodily intelligence more strongly than their


logical intelligence.


While Seiferts summary of research shows the importance of


broadening


childrens knowledge bases, he stresses that such an


extension can take


place only with adult help. Teachers must assume a directive


and supportive


role to enable the children in their care to reach their


fullest potential.


Therefore, the child who always chooses crafts could be


encouraged to try


another activity and be supported until that activity is


mastered. Similarly, the


child who always paints and never reads could be encouraged


to make


paintings about books; a child who always reads and never


paints can read a


book about painting (Seifert, 1).


Although this research focuses on the cognitive development


of children, it also


addresses issues raised by Gardner. In these examples,


teachers are being


encouraged to appeal to another intelligence in their


efforts to broaden the


experience of the children in their care.


For example, teachers who plan curriculum in early childhood settings often


encounter children who have either short, fleeting attention


spans or long,


focused attention spans. Wider and Greenspan suggest that


when a child has


difficulty paying attention, the solution may not be to


provide increasingly


structured activities. Rather, it may be more helpful to give


the child an


opportunity to learn how to learn by providing shared


attention. They believe


that when an adult shows an interest in what a child is


doing, regardless of the


type of activity, the child becomes aware of that interest;


the adults interest


gives the activity meaning for the child. Therefore, the


child understands that


the activity is important, and gains experience in choosing


an activity and


regulating how long that activity will last. In other words,


the child learns how to


learn. In the process, the child can feel the adults tone


and gestures and


experience the adults empathy. The child is calmed and


acquires emotional


understanding and control.


Wider and Greenspan also suggest that teachers encourage


symbolic play


and representational thinking. They recommend addressing


negative themes


such as jealousy and fear and supporting the children as they


come to


understand what these themes mean. To promote what they term


a more


process-oriented approach to learning, they suggest that


teachers


Ensure that children have access to a rich environment


that encourages


exploration and choices. Children need to learn to


choose and to focus


and move on to make another choice.


Provide children with enough time to get fully involved


in an activity and


benefit from it. Children who wander before making a


choice may have


little time to experience their selection.


Consider play an opportunity to integrate all learning


processes and


skills.


Realize play is complex and requires the integration of


all of the childs


abilities on a common pathway.


Make learning interactive and fun. This combination


provides a


motivation and a basis for further learning.


Identify and make goals for the specific learning tasks


of each stage of


emotional development. Such tasks address the processes


children


need to learn on their own.


Conclusion


Although the research cited has been carried out by different


individuals at


different times, certain elements appear to be consistent.


For example, what


happens in the earliest months and years is of greatest


importance and has


long-term consequences for later life. There are a number of


ways of knowing,


and Gardners theory of multiple intelligences seems to


provide a framework for


discussing the findings of other researchers. All children,


including very young


children, should be exposed to the broadest possible range of


positive


experiences and encouraged to learn in all ways. There are


direct links


between brain development research findings and early


childhood curriculum


decisions and practice.


Play as Curriculum


Francis Wardle, Ph.D.


Play! There are two radically different views on the value of


play. Early


childhood educators, child development specialists, and some


parents believe


play is the best way for young children to learn the


concepts, skills, and tasks


needed to set a solid foundation for later school and life


success. School


administrators, many parents, and most politicians believe


play is a waste of


time, off task behavior, needless coddling of young children,


messy and noisy,


unstructured and uneducational-an unaffordable luxury in an


ever-more


competitive world. With the new emphasis on national and


state standards and


school accountability, many early childhood programs are


eliminating play. Is


play worth fighting for? If so, why?


Definition of Play


While most of us know play when we see it, academics have had


trouble


defining it (Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1). Play


involves a free choice


activity that is non-literal, self-motivated, enjoyable and


process oriented.


Critical to this definition is the non-literal, non-realistic


aspect. This means


external aspects of time, use of materials, the environment,


rules of the play


activity, and roles of the participants are all made up by


the children playing.


They are based on the childs sense of reality (Wardle,


187, p. 7). Children


do not play for a reward-praise, money, or food. They play


because they like


it.(p. 8). Children who compete to make the best wooden


ship are not


playing. Children who are told they must use the block with


an A on it to


create a word are not playing, and children who are asked to


label the colors of


their paints, instead of using them to create a picture, are


not playing.


This child-centered aspect of play creates the central


dilemma. Increasingly,


we expect education programs to meet prescribed adult


objectives. Schools,


funding sources, and curricular developers expect programs to


teach specific


outcomes and provide child-based results (Kagan & Cohen,


17). And more


and more parents expect their young children to be learning


specific academic


skills. If adults develop these standards and outcomes, there


is no room left for


child-centered learning-play. Ironically, at the same time we


are eliminating


play from the formal education of young children. Therefore,


many of our


children do not have access to the natural play experiences


we experienced as


children. They dont walk in the park collecting leaves,


throw stones in the


water to see the ever-expanding ripples, play


racing-of-the-sticks under the


bridge, build muddy castles on the banks of a cold stream, or


create a frontier


fort with their buddies. They dont scramble up gnarled


trees, skip across


meadows full of flowers, pick nuts from low branches, use a


fallen tree as a


natural balance beam, or sit on an old tractor imagining that


they are leading a


convoy of explorers across the Sahara Desert.


Why is Play Critical to Future Academic Success?


As we push more academics and computer instruction on young


children; as


we observe many of our childrens homes become dominated by


passive TV


watching and computer games; and as we see many of our


publicly funded


early childhood programs become downward extensions of public


schools, we


need to advocate for childrens right to play. More and more


parents question


the value of young children climbing trees, playing in the


sandbox, and


splashing paint all over themselves. Below are some of the


various kinds of


play, and why they are important.


Types of Play


Motor/Physical Play


Motor play provides critical opportunities for children to


develop both individual


gross and fine muscle strength and an overall integration of


muscles, nerves,


and brain functions. Recent research has confirmed the


critical link between


stimulating activity and brain development (Shore, 17).


Young children must


have ample opportunities to develop physically, and motor


play instills this


disposition toward physical activity. With so many American


adults


experiencing health problems from being overweight, we have a


responsibility


to encourage physical activity in young children.


Social Play


A variety of opportunities for children to engage in social


play are the best


mechanisms for progressing through the different social


stages. By interacting


with others in play settings, children learn social rules


such as, give and take,


reciprocity, cooperation, and sharing. Through a range of


interactions with


children at different social stages, children also learn to


use moral reasoning to


develop a mature sense of values. To be prepared to function


effectively in the


adult world, children need to participate in lots of social


play.


Constructive Play


Constructive play is when children manipulate their


environment to create


things. This type of play occurs when children build towers


and cities with


blocks, play in the sand, construct contraptions on the


woodworking bench,


and draw murals with chalk on the sidewalk. Constructive play


allows children


to experiment with objects; find out combinations that work


and dont work;


and learn basic knowledge about stacking, building, drawing,


damming, and


constructing. It also gives children a sense of


accomplishment and empowers


them with control of their environment. Children who are


comfortable


manipulating objects and materials also become good at


manipulating words,


ideas, and concepts.


Fantasy Play


Children learn to abstract, to try out new roles and possible


situations, and to


experiment with language and emotions with fantasy play. In


addition, children


develop flexible thinking; learn to create beyond the here


and now; stretch their


imaginations; use new words and word combinations in a


risk-free


environment; and use numbers and words to express ideas,


concepts,


dreams, and histories. In an ever-more technological society,


lots of practice


with all forms of abstraction-time, place, amount, symbols,


words, and ideas-is


essential.


Games With Rules


Developmentally, most children progress from an egocentric


view of the world


to an understanding of the importance of social contracts and


rules. Part of


this development occurs as they learn that games like Follow


the Leader, Red


Rover, Simon Says, baseball, and soccer cannot function


without everyone


adhering to the same set of rules. This games with rules


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