Motor learning

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Skill

à The ability to bring about some end result with maximum certainty, minimum energy, and minimum time

à an indicator of quality of performance

à Random House Dictionary

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1. The ability to do something well, arising from talent, training, or practice . Competent excellence in performance

à Johnson Formula

- Skill= Speed + Accuracy + Form+ Adaptability

à A qualitative expression of performance, expressed through

Productivity and characteristics

Characteristics = consistency, meaningful cues, anticipating next response

à Established by measuring the outcome of performing the task or observing certain characteristics of the performance that lead to successful outcome

Abilities stable, enduring traits that, for the most part, are genetically determined and that underlie individual's skilled performance; few in number

Learning a relatively permanent change in capacity of behavior, resulting from experience or some type of practice; 1- there is a modification or change in capacity for behavior, - learning is a construct (one must infer learning from performance), - learning may occur w/o conscious knowledge; learning is an internal phenomenon that cannot be observed directly, only observed from a person's behavior or performance.

Motor learning changes in internal processes that determine an individual's capability for producing a motor task. Level of an individual's motor learning improves with practice and is often inferred by observing relatively stable levels of the person's motor performance.

Implicit learning (phenomenon) improvements that occur in an individual's capability for correct responding as a result of repeated performance attempts and without the person's awareness of the components of the task that prompted improvements.

Performance an overt or observable behavior; "performance may be thought of as a temporary occurrence, fluctuating from time to time because of many potentially operating variables, whereas learning is more respectively permanent" Robert Singer

Closed motor skill environment is stable, i.e. predictable; Ann Gentile- fixed, unchanging environmental conditions; self-paced/internally paced, the pace is under the control of the performer

Open skills the performer must act upon the stimulus according to the action of the stimulus; Ann Gentile- temporally changing and/or spatially changing environment; forced-paced/externally paced, the pace is under the control of the stimulus

Discrete skills clearly defined beginning and end (pole vaulting, throwing and catching a baseball)

Serial Skills clearly defined beginning and end with individual events combined (chained) together to follow in rapid sequence

Continuous skills repetitive, nearly identical movements (steering a car, swimming, ice skating)

Motor skills HOW to do it; primary determinant is quality of movement itself, little perception and subsequent decisions; voluntary movement (high jumping, weight lifting, changing a tire)

Gross motor skills involving large muscles/muscle groups as the primary basis of movement

Fine motor skills ability to control the small muscles of the body

Cognitive Skills What to do; nature of movement is not important, but decisions to be made are critical (playing chess, cooking, coaching)

Motor performance the observable attempt of an individual to produce a voluntary action level of performance is susceptible to fluctuations in temporary factors such as motivation, fatigue, and physical condition

Motor capacity the factor made up of a person's inborn , hereditary potentialities for general motor performance

General motor ability early, and incorrect view that a singular global motor ability exists in individuals; this general motor ability underlies all movement or sports tasks and will influence success in any motor skill or athletic ability

Capabilities characteristics of individuals that are subject to change as a result of practice and that represent a person's potential to excel in the performance of a task

Individual differences differences in performance based on differenced in their stable and enduring abilities; stable from attempt to attempt, enduring across time (physical/social/personality/capacity/achievement differences)

Motor educability (David K. Brace) the ease with which an individual learned new motor skills

Prediction cannot predict a person's future performance by only a few trials; it takes time and multiple trials

Reaction time (RT) time between unanticipated stimulus and the beginning of a person's response; performance measure; more information to process= longer RT

Simple RT one signal and one response

Choice RT more than one signal to which a person must response, each signal has a specified response

Discrimination RT more than one signal, only one response

Movement time time between beginning and end of response

Response time reaction time + movement time

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) delay period during which a planned response seems to be put on hold while another response is being executed

Hick's Law Reaction time will increase logarithmically as the number of stimuli-response choices increase

Franklin Henry's Specificity Hypothesis

à Indicated that there are many motor abilities and that they are independent

à One's performance in one motor ability cannot be used to predict one's performance in another motor ability

What is the purpose of a task analysis?

à Task analysis is a useful method for classifying motor tasks

à 1st the various components of the task are identified and then the types of abilities that underlie task performance are estimated

Why are continuous skills remembered longer than discrete, procedural skills?

Why is it difficult to predict later success from early performances?

What types of abilities are found in early practice?

Multi-limb coordination, Control precision, Response orientation, Reaction time

Speed of arm movement, Rate control, Manual dexterity, Finger dexterity

Arm-hand steadiness, Wrist-finger speed, aiming

Stages of Information Processing

1. Perception- identify the stimulus; dependant upon vision/touch/audition; pick up important cues

. Decision- decide on a response to the stimulus

. Action- respond to the stimulus based on decision; brain tells body what to do with decision made

Factors that Influence Response Preparation Time

1. Reaction time set vs. movement time set

. Number of stimulus-response choices

. Stimulus response compatibility

4. Response complexity

5. Practice

Types of Anticipation

1. Spatial/event anticipation- WHAT will occur?

. Temporal anticipation- WHEN will is happed?

à Knowing what will happen is more important in decreasing reaction time

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Starting a youth discipleship

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STARTING A YOUTH DISCIPLESHIP GROUP

(Much of the material is adapted from a seminar led by Dan DeHaan)

1. THE NEED FOR A DISCIPLESHIP GROUP Many youth are ready to do more than we give them. Realize that some of

the young people have a potential for real spiritual leadership, while others are still peripheral. You need to minister to

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both groups. There is a segment of that youth group that has a lot of potential. All they need is help with the small details

and to have your passion.

Perhaps as a new youth director, you would spend a couple of months getting to know the kids through a lot of fun

activities. But then have a good youth retreat with a both barrels challenge in the areas of leadership. Let the kids know

that a new Bible study will be beginning for those that want to live dangerously or be leaders in training.

. PRAY - FERVENTLY Ask God to give you a group of young people (perhaps only even one or two) who would be willing

to take spiritual leadership and to have a heart for God. Ask God to give you that kind of young people who would go in

your leadership training group. You could call it Leaders in Training or A Youth Leadership/Discipleship Family, or any

other name which would designate it as being basically for young people who are in training to be the leaders in the youth

group.

The age limit should be 1 through college. Even adult sponsors could attend as students too, as long as they dont come

as the leaders, but as those in training.

. HOW TO ADVERTISE You may want to make personal contact with young people who would have potential and would

benefit by being in such a group. Its good if you can have some of the guys who are natural leaders in such a group.

Advertise this to your young people through public announcements and in the church bulletins. Dont make it something

where the young people feel that they have to attend. In fact, it should be at some time other than a regular church hour.

Let them know the duration of these meetings.

4. AT THE FIRST MEETING

A.Hint You should already have in mind what you want them to do and say, but let them say it.

B.They choose leadership rules After sharing a few ideas about your passion for developing real spiritual leaders in the

youth group, ask the group for really specific, practical characteristics of a youth group leader. If this

leader were to be a real spiritual force and example to others what would he need? Write down the

suggestions which they give on a chalkboard. Make sure that everyone in the group agrees.

C.Sign a commitment Once everyone has decided what it takes to be a real spiritual leader, chart it out as guidelines to

follow for the next ten weeks. The youth themselves choose the leadership rules. At that time, you

could ask for commitment from the young people for the next ten weeks. If they miss meetings for

poor reason, they would be eliminated. And if they miss any more than three of the approximate ten

things which would be needed to characterize a leader, on a weekly basis, they would be eliminated

from the group. In other words, the chart which they have decided upon will be used as a basis to

gauge their consistency as leaders.

D.Set a time limit The first and subsequent meetings should last approximately one and a half hours, and always include

sharing and prayer.

E.Give them the tools At the first meeting, ask everyone to get notebooks (best if they all look alike). The three ringed

notebook could be divided into four sections (1) Sermon notes, () Bible study, () Prayer list, (4)

Personal devotional notes. No one would be permitted in the discipleship group after the second

meeting.

5. AT SUBSEQUENT MEETINGS

A.Bring the notebooks and pass them around for others to see what they wrote in their devotional pages. These pages

are not diaries, but are to be reflections which the young people get from reading the Word. Their

emphasis should not be legalistically reading the Word, as much as it should be having a heart for

God.

B.Prayer should always be a very important part of your Leaders in Training. In addition to having an effective prayer list

and developing one, each person should have a weekly prayer partner and that partner should be

different each week (guys with guys etc.). Their commitment should be to pray for their prayer partner

every day and call or meet with that person at least twice that week, to see how everything is going in

their Christian life. They may want to pray with one another through meeting or on the phone.

C.Dont worry about heavy curriculum, since the main emphasis in the program is teaching young people to apply what

they have been learning elsewhere. Naturally, you will want to teach them how to have effective

devotions, and how to vary them. You will also want to teach them how to take good sermon notes.

6. COMPLETE THE LEADERSHIP FAMILY TRAINING Finish at the end of ten weeks. Perhaps you could go on a retreat

and do some fun, crazy things with a loose schedule. At that retreat, as well as at other times, everyone needs to

continue affirming each other as leaders. They need to continually build up each other, because of what God is doing in

their lives. Theyre leaders because theyve chosen to discipline themselves, set priorities, be lonely for God instead of

following a wrong crowd, etc. No doubt a number of them will drop out. Those who do can join when another training

session begins.

7. CONSIDER STARTING ANOTHER GROUP Have another group when the first ten week commitment is over. Have a

brief break, but then begin another training session to develop leaders for your youth group.

8. CONTINUALLY CHALLENGE THE YOUNG PEOPLE Challenge them with what they could do to be examples to others

in their Christian lives. Some youth groups have done such things as sitting in one section of the church, near the front,

and taking notes on the pastors sermon. Perhaps they would also have small circles of prayer in the halls before church

begins, to really challenge the people to the importance of the message which they will hear. Another youth group wrote a

book called Principles of Growth and Leadership. They passed it out, and shared their spiritual leadership with others. It

was done entirely by the young people, not the youth director. After such groups continue, they are not merely disciples

anymore, they are real leaders.

Please note that this sample paper on starting a youth discipleship is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on starting a youth discipleship, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on starting a youth discipleship will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The Great Migration

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The New Negro Generation was one of the most dynamic generations of the African American race. Not only did this generation assist blacks in moving out of the south, but it also changed the heart of the black community. It signaled a new dynamism and a new aggressiveness.

The Great Migration was the migration of thousands of African-Americans from the South to the North. African Americans were looking to escape the problems of racism in the South and felt they could seek out better jobs and an overall better life in the North. It is estimated that over one million African-Americans participated in this mass movement.

The Great Migration created the first large, urban black communities in the North. The North saw its black population rise about 0 percent between 110 and 10. Cities such as Chicago, Detroit, New York, and Cleveland saw some of the biggest increases.

World War I and boll weevils were major factors in

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pulling blacks to the North. The war created a huge demand for labor in the North. It caused millions of men to leave their jobs to serve in the armed forces, and forced immigration to slow down. In the South, a boll weevil infestation of the cotton crop ruined harvests and threatened thousands of African Americans with starvation. This also caused people to head north. Racism in the south also contributed to this movement. During the 10's the KKK was resurrected after it's the disappearance after reconstruction. The Birth of a Nation was released which was a movie based on white supremacy. Not only did it have an impact on the African American race, but to all races that weren't accepted by them. This lead to the formation of black organizations.

Railroad companies were so desperate for help that they paid African Americans travel expenses to the North. Northern labor agents traveled to the South to encourage blacks to leave and go find jobs in the north.

With black labor leaving the South in large numbers, southern planters tried to prevent the outflow, but were ultimately unsuccessful. The more progressive southern employers tried to promise better pay and improved treatment. Others tried to intimidate blacks, even going so far as to board northbound trains, and to attack black men and women to try to force them into returning to the South.

Recruiters toured the South convincing whites and blacks to head north with promises of high wages in the new war factories. They arrived in such numbers that it was impossible to house them all. Blacks who believed they were heading to a promised land found a northern bigotry every bit as pervasive and virulent as what they thought they had left behind in the Deep South. Southern whites brought their own traditional prejudices with them as both races migrated northward. The influx of newcomers strained not only housing, but transportation, education, and recreational facilities as well. The race riots that occurred in many of the states were a prime example of the problems that came along with the migration. Many blacks had no housing and were laid off of their jobs because of the overpopulated areas. Outraged by what was going on, the blacks in these areas retaliated by having these riots. The Red Scare was also a moment in history where blacks were unhappy with the work forces. This was a period were blacks went on many strikes because of labor conditions and the low pay rates. Companies were not improving these conditions so the workers decided to go on strike. There were ,600 strikes that occurred in 11.

The Great Migration led to the rise of the Harlem Renaissance. From 10 until about 10 an unprecedented outburst of creative activity among African-Americans occurred in all fields of art. Beginning as a series of literary discussions in the lower Manhattan (Greenwich Village) and upper Manhattan (Harlem) sections of New York City, this African-American cultural movement became known as The New Negro Movement and later as the Harlem Renaissance. Marcus Garvey who founded the UNIA and Dubois who established the Crisis magazine played a major role in the success of African American artist during this time period.

The era of Jazz was another major part of the New Negro Generation. Jazz was a form of music that represented the lives of African Americans. People like Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and Bessie Smith were just a few of the many Jazz artists. The Cotton Club in Harlem was the top spot for Jazz artists. In 18 Duke Ellington and his band started a 1-year association with the club. Blacks were not allowed to attend this club because it was one of the more fashionable nightclubs and it was also owned by a white man. Blacks would attend the clubs that were not so expensive such as the Sugar Cane. Food and drinks at these clubs were much more cheaper and they would usually stay open later than the other clubs.

The "Chicago Defender" was a remarkably successful in encouraging blacks to migrate from the South to Chicago, often listing names of churches and other organizations to which they could write for help. As a result, thousands of prospective migrants wrote letters to black churches, such as the Bethlehem Baptist Association in Chicago, Illinois, which assumed the task of helping, black migrants find housing and employment. They also helped migrants to adjust to their new environment. The geographic isolation and discriminatory school policies imposed on urban blacks gradually lowered the quality of their public education system and inspired the use of stopgap measures to solve such problems as overcrowding. For example, the Ida B. Wells housing project community center was used to alleviate overcrowding in the kindergarten classes of the Chicago school system.

Many of the black migrants who came to Chicago between 110 and 10 started businesses and became entrepreneurs. The Perfect Eat Shop, a restaurant on 47th street near South Park, is an example of such a business. Ernest Morris, seen standing in the rear of the restaurant owned it.

The New Negro Generation was the birth of a new life for African Americans. It gave them a chance to express their ideas and to show their talents. It gave blacks a chance to establish themselves and to be respected by other races. The movement to the North helped blacks to achieve these goals and was a stepping stone for their strive for equality.

www.africanamericanhistory.com

www.greatmigration.com

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Is Morality a Matter of Comparative Politics?

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As physical items such as fire, contain substances that determines how they will behave, so do people. A persons 'essence' or character will determine how they will react regarding their morals. In this time of violence, terrorism and corruption it is no wonder that the question of morality is raised. It is obvious in this day and age, that morality is a puzzle in comparative politics, and although, culture and ethnicity is a key factor in comparing governments, the role of morality seems to have been sidestepped. While an undefined source for policies, actions and people, morality is an issue seldom heard until a crisis. As Otto von Bismarck stated 'Politics is not an exact science' , thus morality must incumber politics in one way or another.

The notion of morality is rather ambiguous and subjective. There is no clear definition of morals, and obviously no universal standard. So, how do morals affect politics? George Lakoff uses morality as a metaphor, and describes the relationship between morals and politics as 'The Nation as a Family'. Lakoff describes this metaphor as seeing the government as the parent and the states citizens as its children. Lakoff successfully describes this metaphor under a number of different categories.

· Regulation Just as a nurturing parent must protect his children, a government must protect its citizens -- not only from external threats, but also from pollution, disease, unsafe products, workplace hazards, nuclear waste, and unscrupulous businessmen.

· Environmentalism Communion with the environment is part of nurturance, part of the realization of ones potential as a human being. Empathy includes empathy with nature. Caring for children includes caring for future generations. Protection includes protection from pollution. All of these considerations support environmentalism.

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· Feminism and Gay Rights Nurturing parents want all their children to fulfil their potential, and so it is the role of government to provide institutions to make that possible.

· Abortion Women seeking abortion are either women who want to take control of their lives or teenage children needing help. Considerations of nurturance for both require providing access to safe, affordable abortions.

· Multiculturalism Nurturing parents celebrate the differences among their children, and so governments should celebrate the differences among its citizens.

· Affirmative Action Since women and minorities are not treated fairly in society, it is up to the government to do what it can to make sure that they have a fair chance at self-fulfilment.

· Art and the Humanities Knowledge, beauty, and self-knowledge are part of human fulfilment, and so the government must see to it that institutions promote such forms of human nurturance.

· Taxation Just as in a nurturing family it is the duty of older and stronger children to help out those that are younger and weaker, so in a nation it is the duty of citizens who are better off to contribute more than those who are worse-off.

Although the family metaphor is a valid conception of morality, the definition is still unknown. The subjective nature of morality would imply that every action is right if the person agrees with the action or believes it is right. However, how can killing a person be right? This is where culture plays a large part in politics and morality.

If you lived in India your morality would have you believe it is right for wives to be burned alive with their deceased husbands. In Syria, you would believe it is morally permissible to have more than one wife. If you grew up in Sudan, your morals would say it is permissible to have young woman's clitorises surgically removed. However, if you held an American morale, you would probably disagree, finding none of these practices are morally permissible. So, if morality can be so diverse as to be categorised ('Christian' morality, 'Nazi' morality), then this must have a major effect on how different regimes will view issues and act upon them, whether it be economy, women's rights or the current War on Iraq. When using Lakoff's 'Nation as a Family' model it is obvious to see the reasoning behind World leaders support of War against Iraq- just, as a nurturing parent must protect his/her child, a government must protect its citizens . However, this does not justify the War on Iraq, when looked at through a Christian morale.

Fr. Joseph, O.F.M, argues against the separation of church and state, and highlights the submission of Christian morality in politics today.

The state has been given to us by God to look out for the temporal welfare of its people. This means its main purpose is to work for the common good. If those who hold a public office in any way do not work for this purpose, they have usurped their position. It is also important to note that in working for the common good of the people, a morality is necessarily implied, for one cannot be morally neutral, and yet work for an objective good. This is the contradiction of the political scene today. Everyone wants something (what is supposed to be a common good but rarely is anymore), yet it is (from their point of view) supposed to be devoid of any moral basis, especially a Christian one.

This statement highlights that morality whether it is from a Christian or Nazi background will be found in politics. No decision is neutral and action taken against or for an issue is without morality.

Otto Von Bismarck (1815188), Prussian statesman. Speech, December 18, 186, to Prussian legislature. http//www.bartleby.com/66/8/78.html,

G. Lakoff, 'Metaphor, Morality and Politics or Why Conservatives have Left Liberals in the Dust' (15, volume 6, no. ) Social Research http//www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html#BOOKS Theodore Schick, Jr. 'Is Morality a Matter of Taste, Why Professional Ethicists Think that Morality is Not Purely 'Subjective'' (18) 18 Free Inquiry Magazine 4 http//www.secularhumanism.org/fi/index.htm

G. Lakoff, 'Metaphor, Morality and Politics or Why Conservatives have Left Liberals in the Dust' (15, volume 6, no. ) Social Research http//www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html#BOOKS

Fr. Joseph, O.M.F, 'The Morality of Politics' http//friarsminor.org/xxi1-1.html

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Burdens of Responsibility

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As I attend the University of Hawaii at Manoa, I reside on the on-campus residence halls, particularly Hale Mokihana. In fact, more than a thousand students, everyday, tread home from school to these dorms. If you ask anyone, living there is no were close to being at home. One thing that most students dread are the rules and regulations, simply because it puts a limitation on his or her freedom of being independent. What exactly are these rules? What consequences are put into effect when these rules are violated?

These questions and more have been answered in the "Rules and Regulations" and "Disciplinary Actions" Sections in the University of Hawaii Residence Hall Handbook, which is given out during the check-in period. This light-weight, spiral handbook is very eye-catching to the readers with its decorative cover and handy campus map on the back. The facts are presented under specific bold topics, in a well organized layout, which makes it easy to read and follow. Many students, like myself, use this handbook for the convenient calendar organizer located towards the back of the book.

This manual is a compilation written by the staff of the Student Housing Department. However, the person responsible for the overall contents is Darryl Zehner, Director of Student Housing. He speaks on behalf of the University of Hawaii Student Housing Institution. The staff's credibility is very reliable and trustworthy because of their obligation to create a safe and trouble free environment. The authors are more knowledgeable about the topic then the readers.

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This document serves a dual purpose to answer any question a resident may have concerning the policy and to provide a broader understanding of how the residents are expected to behave. The need for this document was to set a system of order so that chaos would be prevented. It prohibits illegal actions and objects that may put the lives of others in danger. It is still widely used today for its effectiveness as well as usefulness in the past, controlling resident conduct. A set of rules is common and appropriate for situations involving many people. The rules and disciplinary actions suggest that no matter what social status and class standing one may be in the same set of rules apply to everyone in the same hall. Other potential readers may be prospective residents, parents, or visitors. They too can get a taste of what the on-campus setting is like by referring to this document.

Not only are the rules and regulations relevant in order to establish a safe living atmosphere, but everyone can also benefit from it. For me, I am glad that they enforce the "Quiet Hours" policy because it helps promote my academic success by placing me in an environment easy to study in. Others who are having problems with people causing trouble can use this book as an important tool to notify the authorities on one's wrongdoings. Rules, including no vandalism and harassment, have played important roles in creating a safe atmosphere respective of others rights. This document is also very advantageous to the writers. The importance of it being a written document is that the rules are set in stone. There is no room for excuses to explain why someone has violated these rules. Although this document is not a contract, people must abide to the contents and cannot dispute or contest it.

Although the rules and disciplinary actions have relevance and some strengths, many questions arise resulting on issues that can be debated about the contents. Certain rights as well as imposed responsibility seem to be on the line for the residents. Also, specific rules are questioned to be unfair. The writers do not offer any explanation to why these rules are implemented. The reasons are usually obvious, however, there are times when it is unclear. "Why must the flyers and poster be first approved by the hall director?" This particular case exemplifies the vagueness found throughout the guide.

In situations of vandalism where the individual does not come forward to claim responsibility, everyone on the floor is punished and must pay a fee of ten dollars to the damage that is done. This group assessment should not be applied seeing that it is unreasonable to those who are innocent. It is also said that possessing a water jug is prohibited for it may be a common source container to hold alcohol. This irrational regulation is an example that limits one's rights at the dorms. Imposed responsibility such as cleaning our rooms as well as checking in our guests seems to be a hassle. Everyone has to compromise on behalf of convenience.

The writers' language and style plays a significant role in informing the students about the rules and its consequences when violated. When explaining the regulations the sentences are plain and precise in order to eliminate any uncertainty or ambiguity. Their meticulous criteria such as having a microwave or refrigerator is narrowed down to a specific condition. It is obvious that the writers of this section had clarity in mind. The tone is very distant and formal between the writer and the readers. However, the next section describing the disciplinary actions are obscure because of its wordiness and usage of big terms. It states, "Whether a student denies or does not refute the alleged policy(s) violations, the housing staff will make a decision based up the preponderance of evidence" (p. 1). The vocabulary is very elevated and written in an official and legalistic tone for the purpose of confusing the readers. It seems as if the author clarifies the rules but disguises the consequences so that those who break a rule will misconstrue the repercussions. From personal experience, sometimes people don't violate a rule simply because the penalty is too harsh. Because the writers' intent is for the readers to obey the rules, there is an abundance of denotative meanings rather then connotative meanings. The content is meant to be straight forward with no underlying meanings. There are no room for semantics.

The two sections in the handbook have been written very effectively to illustrate to the readers the authors' central points. They have created sentences both plain and complicated to convey their intended effect. Although not blatantly asked, the contents have questioned my own values, assumptions, and beliefs about on-campus life. Given the distant relationship we have with the authors and the limitations we possess as students, the book still functions as a reference guide. By possessing both positive and negative traits, the rules and regulations are communicated as being more complex in both an individual and communal level than what the book deems it to be. Please note that this sample paper on Burdens of Responsibility is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Burdens of Responsibility, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Burdens of Responsibility will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Juvenial Death Penalty

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Juvenile Death Penalty

The juvenile death penalty is one of the most controversial issues of the twentieth century. The death penalty is always used as the last resort punishment. People who deserve to be on death row are people who have committed such horrible acts that there is no other punishment that fits their crime. The actual definition of capital punishment is "the lawful infliction of death as a punishment"(West's 16). The death penalty has existed in the United States since 1608. Currently only thirty-eight states allow capital punishment. It is known to be an argumentative topic. Everyone has his or her own opinion on who deserves to receive capital punishment, or whether or not it should actually exist. Capital punishment in the United States used to be a lot more acceptable than it is today(Strater 6).

"There are only six countries in the world that are known to have executed juvenile offenders in the 'nineties Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Nigeria, Yemenand the United States"(Farley ). It is an extremely popular issue at this point in time due to all the current juvenile murderers. Since the spring of ninety-five, six juveniles have been executed this decade in the United States. This is more than any other country in the world. Some would say that these statistics are embarrassing for the United States as a whole. Seventy-five percent of the juvenile's executed are non-Caucasian. Since the start of the death penalty, a good portion of the children put to death have been black males. Most of the juvenile executions have taken place in the South. The youngest person ever to be executed in this country was a ten year old in 1885, for taking part in a robbery and a murder(Strater 6).

The justification for the juvenile death penalty is frequently tracked back to Blackstone's commentaries on the laws of England. Sixteen states in the U.S. have a minimal age requirement for the death penalty under the age of eighteen. Some of these states include Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming. All but one of these states does not go under the age of fourteen(Strater 6). "The minimum age of statute in Mississippi is thirteen, but the Mississippi Attorney General's office indicates the effective age is sixteen based on the interpretation of U.S. Supreme Court Decisions" (Strater 6). Nine states do not have an age requirement for carrying out capital punishment.

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The death penalty is too cruel a punishment for people under the age of eighteen. Anyone under this age has not experienced life as an adult yet. Many of their decisions are made for them. Some of the mistakes they make may be done without thinking it through thoroughly, or the knowledge of life to realize the ramifications of their actions. Youths are heavily influenced by peer pressure and how they are raised. Juveniles may partake in certain uncivilized acts for survival as well. Parenting can play a tremendous role in how juveniles make poor decisions. If their parents are not around while growing up, or make poor decisions themselves, how are their children going to know the correct ways to go about their own lives. Parents need to teach their children to have strong morals. One should know that killing another human being is not correct, but if they are never taught to make good decisions, then murder can just be considered another poor decision that they have made. On the other side of this controversy, "some argue that children mature enough to murder are mature enough to be punished for it"(Farley ). Often times, people base this decision on their own family lives. Many times, the juveniles who commit such heinous crimes to be put on death row have not grown up in the same family environments as the people arguing towards executing them.

"At a time when school shootings have led the United States into a wrenching political debate about youth violence, this is a quandary worth pondering" (The Wall Street Journal A8). Congress is in a jam, trying to figure out what causes youth crime. The people who make laws are working hard to make specific laws that prevent juveniles from seeing violent movies or video games (The Wall Street Journal A8). They feel that such movies or games can cause violent behavior. Already a minimum age requirement is set for certain movies, but not all of them. If states do make new laws dealing with children seeing or playing movies or video games, they must deal with the punishment that should occur after they see or play the game or movie.

Some movies and video games can show some kids more about real life. Many people think that movies or different types of games can have a negative influence upon a kid. Ignoring an issue or telling children not to see certain movies or play some video games is not going to prevent anyone from experiencing the real world. It exists everywhere. If they did not learn from a movie or game, they would just learn from friends, television, and, so on and so forth. Most kids, who go and see a violent movie for the first time, will not understand exactly what is going on. After the movie, the child will probably go home and ask certain questions to his or her parents. At this point in time, the parents can thoroughly explain what went on in the movie and go into an educational conversation about certain issues in which the child may be confused about. A video game is just a form of entertainment. Some video games are obviously more violent than others. Violent video games do not turn a juvenile into a murderer.

Capital punishment has been going on this country for a very long time. Most other countries have done away with it. "The U.N. convention (Article7(a)) provides that neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment without possibility of release shall be imposed for offenses committed by persons below eighteen years of age"(Streib 6). The United States is basically the only country in the world that has not changed this agreement. This country wants to be able to keep the death penalty for juvenile offenders (Streib 6).

The juvenile death penalty has been one of the most controversial issues of the twentieth century, being used as the last resort punishment for the most heinous of crimes, although it should not be the answer to juvenile crimes. Anyone under the age of eighteen needs to mature and start making some of their own decisions. Execution is not the right decision for a crime committed by a juvenile. Please note that this sample paper on Juvenial Death Penalty is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Juvenial Death Penalty, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Juvenial Death Penalty will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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German Unification: 1871

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The German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles, with the Prussian king, William I, as Kaiser of Germany, 18th January, 1871. German unification was a long process that can be attributed to factors such as the Crimean War and the Wars of Unification, the ideas of nationalism and liberalism, Prussia's economic strength, and the role of Otto von Bismarck.

The Crimean War (1854-6), as Bruce Walker says, "gave Bismarck his first important opportunity" to unify Germany, and it would have certainly been more difficult to achieve had the Crimean War not occurred. This conflict realigned the great powers of Europe and, with Russia's withdrawal from European diplomacy, Prussia had become dominant. As Bismarck commented in 186 "It all began with the Crimean War". By the end of the Crimean War, Prussia was intent on initiating territorial changes that Austria was powerless to resist. The Crimean War and consequent Russian defeat meant the withdrawal of Russia into a period of diplomatic isolation and their connection with Austria was cut. Deprived of Russian help, Austria was vulnerable to Prussian ambitions in Germany. The territorial changes began not long after with the first War of Unification. In 1864 Prussia allied itself with Austria to go to war against Denmark over control of the provinces of Schleswig-Holstein. The conflict was brief and was won easily by the allied forces. It was not very significant in terms of steps towards unification, rather, it was a tactic to draw Austria into a later dispute against Prussia over control of these provinces. This occurred in 1866.

The authors of Key Features of Modern History state that "The war between Prussia and Austria was intended to unite northern Germany behind Prussia". Bismarck wanted to unify Germany, but without Austria. The second War of Unification removed Austria from German affairs, and united a number of the northern German states, known as the North German Confederation. The Austrians were defeated at Sadowa. This is not surprising, because not only did Austria have no allies, but Italy fought on the Prussian side, forcing Austria to divide its forces. Austria had to accept defeat under the terms of the Treaty of Prague.

The final War of Unification was the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1. August 1, 1870, one of the main French armies had been contained at Metz, and on September 1st, the other was forced to surrender at Sedan. These victories were significant for Prussia because it meant that a republic was able to be proclaimed in France. This happened only three days later. The second major result of this conflict was, of course, the proclaiming of the German Empire at Versailles in 1871. The Crimean War and the Wars of Unification were essential in creating a unified German state as they allowed the Germans to overcome all opposing countries that stood in their way towards finally unifying their country.

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The concepts of liberalism and nationalism helped to unite Germany, especially through the Revolutions of 1848. Nationalism, especially, was highly influential and Bruce Dennett and Stephen Dixon have said that "German unification had more to do with nationalism than any other single idea", as nationalism created a sense of German unity among its citizens that inspired action from people of all classes. Although the Congress of Vienna in 1815 delayed the process for a while, the Revolutions of 1848, undoubtedly inspired by the principles of liberalism and nationalism, brought the idea of unification to the front of German policy, as creating a unified German state under a Prussian king was at the core of the antagonism.

German unification would probably have occurred much later than it did had the Prussian economy not been as strong as it was. It was a huge asset to the Prussians in the struggle for hegemony in Germany, especially after the rapid expansion they enjoyed in the 180s that resulted in coal production rising from . to 1. million tonnes from 1846-1860, the construction of a new railway system that increased military mobility, and the building up of the manufacturing base in the Rhineland, with coal, and the Saar, with steel, helping to produce weapons in large numbers for the Prussian military force. J.M. Keynes stresses the economic base for Germany unity when he says, "The German Empire was created more by coal and steel than by blood and iron". The strong Prussian economy helped the country and its military in achieving German unification.

Historians Bruce Dennett and Stephen Dixon are quoted as saying Otto von Bismarck was "the architect of unification and used the power of the Prussian state and war to achieve his goals". Bismarck's main objective, when he was made Prime Minister in 186, was that Prussia replace Austria as the supreme power in the German confederation. He, therefore, guided the unification of the separate German states into a single country, with his own state of Prussia as the most dominant. Bismarck was also responsible for Germany's rise as the most powerful economic and military force on the continent of Europe. Bismarck was also the one who warned the Prussian Landtag in the Army Bill debate of 186 that Prussian predominance in Germany must be based on military security "Germany looks not to Prussia's liberalism but to her power... The questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions... but by iron and blood" The military preparedness of Prussia could not have been achieved without the war reforms like the Army Bill of 186, that were orchestrated by Bismarck. Germany needed someone with the political will to use Prussia's resources to its advantage, as well as the skill to exploit the new balance of power in Europe that occurred as a result of the Crimean War. These were provided by Bismarck, and, as the authors of Problems and Issues in Modern History remarked, Bismarck's "planning and skill made... [this] possible". The role of Bismarck was instrumental in unifying the German states under Prussian leadership. Historian G.A. Craig supports this claim when he says "the unification of Germany would probably have taken place without Bismarck, but surely not at the same time or in quite the same way".

The Crimean War and the Wars of Unification, nationalism and liberalism, Prussia's economic strength and the role of Bismarck were pivotal in achieving German unification. Had even one of these factors been weaker than they were, unification would certainly have not occurred when it did.

Please note that this sample paper on German Unification: 1871 is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on German Unification: 1871, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on German Unification: 1871 will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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