Current role of women in conflict prevention

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Current Discourse on the Role of Women in Conflict Prevention and

Conflict Transformation a Critique

Much of the recent discourse surrounding the role of women in conflict prevention and conflict transformation is shot through with contradictory assumptions used as the basis for the argument that women should play a greater role, women's voices should be heard more and so on in these processes. While the desire for a more humane politics, for the insertion of the legitimacy of emotions and an ethic of care into our deliberations about the causes of conflict and its possible resolution, is to be welcomed, we need to theorise with greater care why we associate these positive social goods with women and what we mean when we talk about "women". We need also to look at the implications of doing so and to ask ourselves why these values have been marginalized in the first instance. Calls for conflict prevention strategies to take into account a "gendered perspective" (and what is usually meant here is "women's perspective" rather than a gender perspective) lack a clear theoretical grounding and have become a somewhat hollow talisman whose real meaning is unclear. Constantly repeating the refrain of the absence of a "woman's perspective" tells us little about what such a perspective might be and is falsely universalising in its premise. These calls draw from a variety of conflicting theoretical trends ranging from liberal pluralism through to standpoint feminism. What they fail to do is to take into account the post-structuralist critique of such perspectives which denies the unitary subject of both liberal and feminist accounts.

The Liberal Pluralist Impulse

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At the heart of the liberal account of politics is the autonomous individual, freely choosing and motivated in those choices by self-interest. Key to this account is the distinction between a private sphere of personal, subjective interests which is mediated by the competition of the market and a public sphere where the aim is to try to rule according to the supposedly apolitical idea of a common good. In the liberal pluralist version of this account different groups ought to have differential influence in public life according to the degree to which they are impacted on by a particular issue "Within the liberal logic of self-interest, people are more likely to exercise their agency as citizens over matters that affect them most directly" . Embedded in the rhetorical claims made in many of the calls for a greater involvement of women in conflict resolution, for a "gendered perspective", is the idea that women have a particular interest in peace. In a variety of forums where the need to "mainstream a gender perspective in conflict resolution" is reiterated again and again, the fact that women and children are the most vulnerable group when conflict erupts and are frequently the main victims of armed conflict is cited as the preface to a call for the greater involvement of women in conflict resolution structures . Women are said to be the mothers, wives, grandmothers, lovers of the soldiers who are sent to die in conflict; women are said to suffer the most from war and therefore to have the greatest interest in ending it. This then is the liberal pluralist idea of the right to a greater representation in the processes governing conflict resolution deriving from a particular interest in the resolution of conflict.

A further version of liberalism is the associationalist idea which requires a strengthening of the voluntary associations that make up civil society as a counterpoint to state power. "The civil society argument departs from conventional liberal democracy by according voluntary bodies a primary role in organising social life, rather than an ancillary function to government. These smaller private entities, which may or may not be governed by democratic principles, are viewed as more flexible and responsive to community needs" .

In current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution both liberal pluralist and associationalist perspectives are common. Much of this discourse arises from the non-state sector from aid organisations, conflict resolution bodies, United Nations subsidiaries, and other civil society formations. Much of the discourse implies that, left to states alone, conflict resolution and transformation is unlikely to succeed, that what is needed is to base these efforts in the lives of "real people" from which the state is seen to be relatively removed. In particular, the state, and formal political processes, it is implied, are the domain of men and the already empowered. What is needed are other voices, in particular, the voices of women.

The Critique of Liberal Pluralism

Yet inherent in the call for a "gendered approach" to conflict resolution and for the "perspective of women" to be included in conflict transformation, is also fundamentally a critique of liberal individualism. Opponents have argued that far from the ideal of the neutral state which referees between conflicting interests as expressed by freely choosing autonomous subjects, the state has become the instrument of the already empowered, that the separation between public and private which lies at liberalism's heart is illegitimate and that not all interests in society are in an equal position to assert themselves.

Each of these critiques is suggested but seldom explicitly stated in elements of the current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution. If the call is to look to formations of civil society for an energy, a richness, a new perspective to be brought to bear on conflict resolution processes, then implicit in this is the idea that while women are often absent from formal state structures they are often to be found in organisations of civil society. More than this, it is implied that the state, male arena that it is, is often incapable of taking into account women's perspectives and interests.

But in another form, the discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution offers a more fundamental critique of liberal pluralism than this. As seen above, one form of critique is simply to say that it is all very well to propose many different groups in society with different perspectives and the ideal is that each perspective is fully expressed. This leaves out notions of power, race, gender and so on. Implied in this critique is the rationale that if one could cancel out these inequalities of expression, the notion may well be valid. But is this really what the proponents of a greater role for women's voices in conflict resolution wish to say? In some versions it appears that what is being said is something more fundamental. Rather than simply postulating that women's voices should be included because they are an interest in society that is important and has unjustifiably been excluded with unfortunate consequences, there appears to be implied in many versions of this discourse something more far-reaching. Rather than one valid perspective among many, there is the idea underlying much of what is said, that women's perspective is the perspective that is needed. Women, it is often implied, are peaceable, caring, loving, kind and we need a world in which these values are paramount. Conflict resolution requires a reinsertion of these values onto the top of our political agendas and we do so by including women.

While pluralism, as Mouffe has pointed out means the "absence of a single substantive idea of the good life", many arguments for the inclusion of women's voices in conflict resolution then, seem to hold implicit in them a very particular substantive idea of the good life. Women's perspectives are not just held as one among many valid ideas but rather are implicitly viewed as offering a better, more peaceful way of ordering social life, a better way of seeing conflict, its roots and causes and thus a better way of solving it, along with a better way of living after conflict. This brings us to the next set of implicit assumptions in this discourse, namely its essentialising assumptions regarding who and what women are.

Standpoint feminism

Current discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution and conflict transformation owes many of its fundamental assumptions to what has been termed "standpoint feminism". This perspective includes the following assumptions

· the claim that philosophical as well as social-scientific theories of the past have been cognitively inadequate because they have failed to take into account the standpoint, activities and experiences of women;

· to correct gender blindness it is necessary to identify a set of experiences, activities, as well as patterns of thinking, feeling and acting which can be characterised as 'female';

· such experiences, activities, etc. are a consequence of women's social position or of their position within the sexual division of labour; whereas men have been active in the public sphere of production, politics, war and science, women's activities have been confined to the domestic/reproductive and private spheres;

· the task of feminist theory is to make this sphere of activity and its consequences for human life visible, audible and present at the level of theory; feminist theory articulates the implicit, tacit, everyday and non-theorised experiences and activities of women and allows these to come to the level of consciousness;

· by aiding the articulation of female experience, feminist theory not only engages in a critique of science and theory but it also contributes to the process of transforming women's consciousness by giving female activities and experiences public presence and legitimacy.

These points correlate very well with what is being said in the political discourse on women in conflict resolution

· it is claimed that conflict resolution practice and theory have failed to take into account the standpoint, activities and experiences of women;

· it is argued that the dominant discourse of conflict resolution and prevention has been guilty of gender blindness thus excluding women's experiences, activities, patterns of thinking, feeling and acting;

· women are seen to hold these different perspectives because of their different social position; women have a perspective drawn from their lives as mothers, carers, wives and they have been relatively absent from the realm of production, politics, war and science;

· the task of a gendered perspective in conflict resolution practice and theory is to make the lived experiences, activities and perspectives of women part of the agenda of conflict resolution.

The Post-Structuralist Critique

Poststructuralist theorists such as Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe have argued that each person belongs to numerous overlapping groups and holds multiple intersecting identities . In contrast to the fundamentals of standpoint feminism this is a non-essentialist view of politics. In contrast to the unitary agent both of liberalism and of standpoint feminism, the social agent is conceived of as constituted by a multiplicity of subject positions whose articulation is always precarious and temporary. In this view, then, identities (including both gender and sex) are socially constructed with no basis of "givenness" in nature, anatomy or some other anthropological.

Post-structuralist ideas of the radically decentred, multiple-layered subject have thus led to a very fundamental critique of the assumptions of standpoint feminism. Yet the discourse on the role of women in conflict resolution appears entirely to be situated in the paradigms of liberalism, pluralism and standpoint feminism and to have taken little cognisance of this critique. Yet whether or not women can be said to be the bearers of a different and distinctive set of values is the central debate in contemporary feminist theory. As Benhabib points out, "there is not a single organisation with the agenda of which a majority of women would agree … Relishing in diversity, basking in fragmentation, enjoying the play of differences, and celebrating opacity, fracturing, and heteronomy is a dominant mood of contemporary feminist theory and practice" .

Poor and working class women, lesbians, black women, rural women have argued that the standpoint feminist starting point fails to illuminate their lives or address their problems. This is a vital critique for the discourse on conflict resolution to take into account, addressing itself as it does chiefly to poor women in poor countries. The assumption of a universal female dependence and confinement to the domestic sphere is seen as a false extrapolation from the experience of white, middle-class, heterosexual women situated primarily in the North . This "contemporary mood" of feminist theory and practice poses an enormous challenge to those who would wish to see various forms of political activity based on the idea that women have something in common, in this instance, a common perspective on peace and society which has hitherto been absent from the conflict resolution discourse and needs to be inserted.

Meeting the Post-structuralist Challenge

While it seems empirically difficult to argue with the critique of standpoint feminism as privileging a narrow section of women's interests and experiences and generalising these to incorporate all women when we use terms like "women's perspective", this is a politically enfeebling position to arrive at, entailing as it does, the loss of the female subject. In response to the post-structuralist challenge, various attempts have been made to shore up the idea of a common women's perspective. One attempted answer has been from the literature which casts women as mothers. Much of this literature comes from the peace movement where it is/was supposed that women were somehow more predisposed to peace as a result of their ability to, or actual experience of, giving life. Yet it has been a characteristic of this literature that it ends up talking not about "women" at all but about certain kinds of roles or practices. Thus it is not women who are more peaceable or kindly or nurturing, but mothers. And it is not only women who can be mothers but the role of mothering itself which renders certain attitudes available to one -- and in principle such roles could be performed either by men or women . It is the values and experiences that are affirmed, then, not a particular type of person.

Another (related) attempted answer has come from the literature on care. Carol Gilligan argues that an "ethic of care and responsibility" characterises women's moral voices. She claims that women are more likely to display than men the values of care, responsiveness to the needs of others, the ability for empathy and for taking the standpoint of the concrete other . Again this literature ends up eschewing essentialist notions which make women uniquely caring to talk about the ethic of care itself as a good ethic rather than about which people have this ethic and what the gender of such people might be .

While the idea of women all collectively possessing and articulating certain fundamental interests and perspectives is impossible to sustain in the face of the post-structuralist challenge posed to standpoint feminism, it may be possible to reactivate the notion of a common good, a shared human vision (as opposed to a woman's vision). It may be that we are able, for example, to claim that whatever our cultural, sexual, class, race, regional, gender or other (intersecting) identity components, it is self-evident that human relationships characterised by mutuality, caring, empathy and compassion are more desirable than relationships based on competition, mistrust, antagonism, violence and aggression.

This is the move that Benhabib makes when she talks of a vision of feminism "which accepts that the furthering of one's capacity for autonomous agency is only possible within the confines of a solidaristic community that sustains one's identity through mutual recognition …. Distinct from the language of eternal contestation, conflict and haggling over scarce resources, the primary virtue in politics is the creation of an enlarged mentality" . So rather than the goal of a good politics being the creation of a neutral state which presides over perpetual conflict, the aim is unashamedly to give a particular content and meaning to the good life that is being proposed, unashamedly to avow a politics of mutual compassion rather than narrow self-interest. It is true that the virtues in question have at some points been associated with the "feminine" while competition, aggression and violence have historically been associated with the "masculine" but the idea here is to recognise that these are human virtues and human ills, they do not adhere timelessly, biologically or necessarily to any particular gender or to any particular type of man or woman. Rather, these are virtues which are always precarious, vulnerable to corruption and in need of our ongoing and dutiful attention so that they may be privileged in public life. The point here is that it is more helpful straightforwardly to attest to the sorts of ways we want people to be rather than essentialising a notion of "women" who are then postulated as the harbingers of these virtues which have hitherto been absent from public life. Unless we believe that men are as capable of these virtues as women (and contrariwise that women are as capable as men of the vices of greed, aggression and violence), then both our hopes for more peaceable human relations and the probability of our hopes succeeding must likely be dashed.

This response to the post-modernist critique moves in the opposite direction from the latter critics, taking as it does, an avowedly non-relativist stance and returning to the unpopular notion of a common good as being the goal of public life. Rather than accepting a notion of human society as consisting in ever more particularised individual interests, it entails as Hannah Arendt has suggested, a recognition of at least the potential for agreement with others, whatever our gender, class, race, regional or other identity; it suggests that the capacity for imagination with which human beings are uniquely endowed provides us with the potential for "an enlarged way of thinking which … knows how to transcend its individual limitations" . This is an idea taken up by amongst others the philosopher Thomas Nagel who argues that the appropriate form that moral reasoning must necessarily take is for the individual to view a particular matter partly from her own standpoint but partly also by imaginatively placing herself in the shoes of the other persons affected by a particular course of action .

Conclusion

Simply to "include" women or women's voices (and these, it must be remembered will not be representative in any way of a general category of "women" since no such thing exists) in a politics that is flawed and based on unsatisfactory ethical and moral bases will have little transformative effect. As Dhaliwal has pointed out, such inclusionary attempts do little more than reaffirm a "hegemonic core to which the margins are added without any significant destabilisation of that core". The add women and stir project serves to "valorise the very centre that is problematic to begin with" . Formal legal rights to equality of inclusion of men and women are likely to have little impact in the absence of the creation of new and deep-rooted forms of political culture. It is moreover impossible to create the latter in the absence of a positive vision which affirms certain values and disavows others. Yet the positive affirming of particular values and rejection of others, say in public education, is precisely what is unpopular among many of the very proponents of conflict resolution who would wish to see a greater role for women. Current dominant perspectives on "multiculturalism" lead some to the conclusion that any positive moral vision is necessarily flawed and that it is never justifiable to affirm certain values and deny others. Because of this shyness about what is viewed as the relativity of value standpoints, these proponents have to introduce a substantive and positive value affirmation through the back door as it were by suggesting that if we include women, then we shall include the kinds of values and points of view that have thus far been missing. Why not simply talk about these values for their own sake, as human values which are to be affirmed and positively fostered through education and the formation of a new political culture?

This is in stark contrast to some recent theorists of radical democracy who, in focusing on the need to include various people in the decision-making of a democracy land up in what appears to this writer to be an absurd position where truth matters less than participation "the right to decide takes precedence over making the right decisions, which is why who participates in a decision is as important as what is decided" . This seems patently ridiculous. While there are certainly legitimate issues of justice and equality in relation to the unequal numbers of men and women in structures of political power, including conflict resolution and transformation processes, an exclusive focus on who is present and who is absent risks confusing the presence of certain types of people with the presence of certain types of substantive values and ideas. The inclusion of women is no panacea and can easily become a readily achievable substitute for the much more difficult process of negotiating and inculcating a positive peace agenda which includes gender sensitivity but also a whole lot more.

References

Benhabib, S. 16. Democracy and Difference Contesting the

Boundaries of the Political. Princeton, N.J.

Princeton University Press.

Nagel, T. 186. The View from Nowhere. New York Oxford

University Press.

Ruddick, S. 15. Maternal Thinking Towards a Politics of Peace.

Boston, Mass. Beacon Press.

Sevenhuisjen, S. 18. Citizenship and the Ethics of Care Feminist

Considerations on Justice,Morality and Politics.

London Routledge; New York Dutton.

Trend, D. (ed.). 16. Radical Democracy Identity, Citizenship and the

State. New York Routledge.

United Nations. 00. Security Council Open Meeting on Women, Peace

and Security, July 5 (various documents).

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Early childhood Education

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Description

The lesson I chose to analyze was from my observation of an Early Childhood

Special Education Class. The class was beginning a thematic unit on dinosaurs.

To start the unit the teacher read the book, The Berenstain Bears and the

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Missing Dinosaur Bone. The book was read on the rug with seven students who

disabilities range from being autistic to having a learning disability. There

was no display of any other dinosaur books around the room. Upon finishing the

book the teacher had materials ready for the students to make a stuffed pre-cut

dinosaur with the use of newspaper. Their next job was to color and cut out

body parts of a Triceratop and paste them on cardboard. This was just day 1 of

a half day of Early Childhood Special Education Class.

Day - The teacher had the students cut out upper/lower case Nn. They were then

suppose to find the letter n in magazines and paste it to there construction

sheet. Getting back to the dinosaur unit, the teacher had students finish

stuffing their paper dinosaurs and paint a picture of a dinosaur only using four

colors (green, red, orange, brown). The last activity of the day consisted of

the students counting and graphing the dinosaurs.

Day - Today the students were given a booklet on different types of dinosaurs,

where they were expected to color each dinosaur and copy the dinosaue name.

Day 4- Many students had to complete their dinosaur booklets and then create a

textured dinosaur using sandpaper under the picture of the dinosaur. They were

then expected to create a habitat of where the dinosaurs would live with green

trees and brown tissue paper to represent the bark of the tree. Next, on the

agenda was to create giant dinosaur foot prints on butcher paper with a sponge.

Day 5- Show students how tall a dinosaur was by marking it off in the hallway

(0 feet long).

Critique

To begin with there was no consistent flow from one lesson to the next. The

actual room should have been covered with big dinosaur foot prints from corner

to corner. This would of grabbed all of the students attention in a heart

beat. The teacher could have also turned her room into a forest where the

dinosaurs would have lived by making huge trees out of construction paper with

tall grass. After grabbing their attention with all these visual props, she

could of then assessed their prior knowledge of what they do know about

dinosaurs using a web on a board with simple words (big, teeth, meat). The

teacher did a poor job in making the students focus on the subject at hand which

was about dinosaurs. The activities also took up a majority of the teachers

time because she was doing all the work for the students. Some of the

activities were not child centered. There was no anticipatory set. She began

it with reading a book that most of the kids could not sit still for. I would

of displayed a wide arrange of books (big books) with all sorts of dinosaurs.

The students would of listened to the story on a tape with dinosaur noises.

Barney is a great dinosaur to bring into this activity.

For the actual activities, I would have had two centers a day that rotated

around the theme of dinosaurs.

One center would focus on the three different kinds of dinosaurs and the

students are expected to cut the dinosaurs out and place them on popsicle sticks

where they can act out how dinosaurs would of moved and the noises they would of

made. Other centers might have the actual dinosaur play figures, where the

students can manipulate them as well as get a visual picture of what they may

have looked like. The use of centers will give the opportunity for the teacher

to work with half of the class in one place while the other half is at another

center with a teachers aid. Other centers can include the children working

with clay to form their own dinosaurs. These centers would have incorporated a

variety of hands on experiences that will stimulate the minds of young

children. That would incorporate Howard Gardners Theory of Multiple

Intelligences, which are identified as being

Linguistic (language)- skills used for reading, writing, listening, and talking

Logical-mathematical - Involves computing numbers, solving logical

puzzles, and thinking scientifically. It combines with

linguistic

intelligence in the solution of mathematical word

problems.

Spatial- Includes the skills necessary for driving a car, piloting a plane, and

figuring

out how to get from one location to another. It is

important in the

visual arts and in playing games like chess where it is

important

to imagine what the board will look like after certain

moves have

been made.

Musical- Involves singing,

playing an instrument, conducting an orchestra,

composing, and

to some extent appreciating music.

Bodily-kinesthetic- Involves

the ability to use the whole body or portions of it in

the solution

to problems or in the construction of objects. It is

used by

dancers, athletes, actors, surgeons and others who use

physical

movement to achieve their goals.

Interpersonal intelligence- Includes both understanding others and acting

upon that understanding. It involves noting distinctions

among

others, becoming aware of what they are thinking or

feeling, and

realizing what their needs might be. It can be expressed

both

verbally and nonverbally through gesture and facial

expression. It

is especially helpful for those engaged in politics,

sales,

psychotherapy, and teaching.

Intrapersonal intelligence- Includes both understanding others and acting

upon that understanding. It involves noting distinctions

among

others, becoming aware of what they are thinking or

feeling, and

realizing what their needs might be. It can be expressed

both

verbally and nonverbally through gesture and facial

expression. It

is especially helpful for those engaged in politics,

sales,

psychotherapy, and teaching.

I would also like to mention that many of the activites were not child centered

at all. The teacher and the aid had to do a majority of the activities. They

were all basically created by the teacher. The children were not creating their

own dinosaurs from paint, tissue paper or clay. The teacher did not explain

everything very well and she helped asebly most of the activities. I am

thinking that the children have to be able to do something on their own. Young

children grow through their experiences. Now if I were the teacher of that

class this is what I would do or how I would plan my week on the teheme of

dinosaurs.

Early Childhood Curriculum

Judith Colbert

Brain Development Research and Your Classroom

You will find that other, more recent scientific studies into

the importance of

early stimulation largely confirm what you regularly observe

in child care

settings. Such studies are valuable because they help you

fully understand the

processes behind what you see as you interact with young

children. On a

practical level, they help you develop strategies that will

make your work more

effective.

Planning for Developmental Stages

When you develop curriculum within your own program, research

findings

remind you of the importance of thinking about the daily

activities you are

planning, especially the activities for the youngest infants

in your care. These

findings validate the concept of developmental

appropriateness for all ages by

reinforcing the need to respect the developing brain and what

it can

accommodate at particular stages.

Planning for Groups

When you make curriculum plans for groups of children,

research results also

remind you that each child within the group is a distinctive

individual. You can

build on what Gardner and others have written about multiple

intelligences and

the many ways that each of us comprehends the world around us

by

considering the variety of individuals in your group and

ensuring that each kind

of intelligence is represented in the plans that you make.

Such ideas are not new to the early childhood community. In

its most recent

position statement on developmentally appropriate practice,

the National

Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

states that children

demonstrate different modes of knowing and learning and

different ways of

representing what they know (Bredekamp & Copple, 17).

NAEYC cites

Gardners work in its discussion of this position and echoes

his theories in its

teacher guidelines. For example, in fulfilling their role as

educators, teachers

are advised to make plans to enable children to attain key

curriculum goals

across various disciplines such as language arts,

mathematics, social studies,

art, music, physical education, and health (Bredekamp &

Copple, 17).

Assisting Individual Children

Research also shows how curriculum planning and ongoing

observation can be

used to assist individual children. Each childs

intelligence profile is different.

In some cases, you will be called upon to develop curriculum

and teacher

behavior to support a particular childs dominant

intelligence. In others, it will

be necessary to strengthen an area of weakness.

Identifying and Supporting Individual Strengths

Teachers are in a position of providing activities that

support particular

strengths and increase a childs likelihood of success. Such

support is

especially important when a childs dominant intelligence is

not typical of the

group or valued in the culture. Most would agree with Gardner

that North

American culture, and educational practice in particular,

places the highest

value on linguistic intelligence and to a lesser extent on

logical-mathematical

intelligence (11). Individuals with strengths in areas

other than linguistics

often find it difficult to succeed.

Gardner himself shows how early childhood curriculum planners

and teachers

can use their knowledge of multiple intelligences to support

children in the

classroom in a paper he co-authored with Jessica Davis of

Harvards Project

Zero (1). The Arts and Early Childhood Education A

Cognitive

Developmental Portrait of the Young Child as Artist presents

two approaches

to a childs drawing of her family.

The first approach is likely the more typical. The teacher

compliments the child

named Lucy on a lovely drawing, then asks her to tell me

about it. As Lucy

talks, the teacher prints on the top of each figure, My

mother. My father. Me.

My brother. In the space above, the teacher writes Lucys

Family and

whispers in her ear, Nice work. The teacher is supportive,

positive, and

responsive to the childs effort. Yet, as the authors point

out, the teachers

response focuses on language and implies that the drawing

says nothing on

its own. The teachers response suggests, however

indirectly, that words

convey meaning more effectively than the drawing itself. It

says that linguistic

intelligence is superior to artistic (spatial) intelligence,

and that the symbolic

domain of language is more effective than the symbolic domain

of art.

However, each domain is distinctive and fully capable of

expressing meaning.

Davis and Gardner (1) point out that the teacher would

have left a very

different impression by commenting on the action in this

line; by telling the

child, This is a nicely balanced drawing; or by saying,

This drawing is very

strong. By focusing on the aesthetic elements of the

drawing, the teacher

would have introduced Lucy to a vocabulary that could

strengthen her spatial

intelligence and provide a foundation for its further

development.

Identifying and Strengthening Skills

As an early childhood professional, you are also in a

position to observe a

child and to encourage activities which will broaden his or

her skills. As you

watch curriculum unfold within your classroom, it is

important to observe how

each child responds to the task at hand. Is there a variation

that would be

more appropriate for that child? Are there other ways in

which all of the

children could approach a particular task/activity? Are you

ensuring that they

are tapping the potential of as many of their intelligences

as possible?

Once again, research into how the brain works can help you

develop ways of

assisting the children in your care. Many researchers use

information

processing theory to model human thinking after the workings

of a computer.

For example, Kelvin Seiferts summary of research into

cognitive development

reveals differences in the ways that young children process

information in

relation to older children and in relation to each other

(Seifert, 1). These

differences, he believes, have implications for

developmentally appropriate

practice. Teachers are advised to observe how children prefer

to organize new

knowledge and, as a result of their observations, think of

new ways to

introduce unfamiliar topics to them. Instead of organizing

animals according to

biological classes, for example, teachers might present them

by petability.

(Presumably, a kitten is more petable than a frog.) When

considered in

relation to Gardners classifications, such advice means

appealing to the

childrens bodily intelligence more strongly than their

logical intelligence.

While Seiferts summary of research shows the importance of

broadening

childrens knowledge bases, he stresses that such an

extension can take

place only with adult help. Teachers must assume a directive

and supportive

role to enable the children in their care to reach their

fullest potential.

Therefore, the child who always chooses crafts could be

encouraged to try

another activity and be supported until that activity is

mastered. Similarly, the

child who always paints and never reads could be encouraged

to make

paintings about books; a child who always reads and never

paints can read a

book about painting (Seifert, 1).

Although this research focuses on the cognitive development

of children, it also

addresses issues raised by Gardner. In these examples,

teachers are being

encouraged to appeal to another intelligence in their

efforts to broaden the

experience of the children in their care.

For example, teachers who plan curriculum in early childhood settings often

encounter children who have either short, fleeting attention

spans or long,

focused attention spans. Wider and Greenspan suggest that

when a child has

difficulty paying attention, the solution may not be to

provide increasingly

structured activities. Rather, it may be more helpful to give

the child an

opportunity to learn how to learn by providing shared

attention. They believe

that when an adult shows an interest in what a child is

doing, regardless of the

type of activity, the child becomes aware of that interest;

the adults interest

gives the activity meaning for the child. Therefore, the

child understands that

the activity is important, and gains experience in choosing

an activity and

regulating how long that activity will last. In other words,

the child learns how to

learn. In the process, the child can feel the adults tone

and gestures and

experience the adults empathy. The child is calmed and

acquires emotional

understanding and control.

Wider and Greenspan also suggest that teachers encourage

symbolic play

and representational thinking. They recommend addressing

negative themes

such as jealousy and fear and supporting the children as they

come to

understand what these themes mean. To promote what they term

a more

process-oriented approach to learning, they suggest that

teachers

Ensure that children have access to a rich environment

that encourages

exploration and choices. Children need to learn to

choose and to focus

and move on to make another choice.

Provide children with enough time to get fully involved

in an activity and

benefit from it. Children who wander before making a

choice may have

little time to experience their selection.

Consider play an opportunity to integrate all learning

processes and

skills.

Realize play is complex and requires the integration of

all of the childs

abilities on a common pathway.

Make learning interactive and fun. This combination

provides a

motivation and a basis for further learning.

Identify and make goals for the specific learning tasks

of each stage of

emotional development. Such tasks address the processes

children

need to learn on their own.

Conclusion

Although the research cited has been carried out by different

individuals at

different times, certain elements appear to be consistent.

For example, what

happens in the earliest months and years is of greatest

importance and has

long-term consequences for later life. There are a number of

ways of knowing,

and Gardners theory of multiple intelligences seems to

provide a framework for

discussing the findings of other researchers. All children,

including very young

children, should be exposed to the broadest possible range of

positive

experiences and encouraged to learn in all ways. There are

direct links

between brain development research findings and early

childhood curriculum

decisions and practice.

Play as Curriculum

Francis Wardle, Ph.D.

Play! There are two radically different views on the value of

play. Early

childhood educators, child development specialists, and some

parents believe

play is the best way for young children to learn the

concepts, skills, and tasks

needed to set a solid foundation for later school and life

success. School

administrators, many parents, and most politicians believe

play is a waste of

time, off task behavior, needless coddling of young children,

messy and noisy,

unstructured and uneducational-an unaffordable luxury in an

ever-more

competitive world. With the new emphasis on national and

state standards and

school accountability, many early childhood programs are

eliminating play. Is

play worth fighting for? If so, why?

Definition of Play

While most of us know play when we see it, academics have had

trouble

defining it (Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1). Play

involves a free choice

activity that is non-literal, self-motivated, enjoyable and

process oriented.

Critical to this definition is the non-literal, non-realistic

aspect. This means

external aspects of time, use of materials, the environment,

rules of the play

activity, and roles of the participants are all made up by

the children playing.

They are based on the childs sense of reality (Wardle,

187, p. 7). Children

do not play for a reward-praise, money, or food. They play

because they like

it.(p. 8). Children who compete to make the best wooden

ship are not

playing. Children who are told they must use the block with

an A on it to

create a word are not playing, and children who are asked to

label the colors of

their paints, instead of using them to create a picture, are

not playing.

This child-centered aspect of play creates the central

dilemma. Increasingly,

we expect education programs to meet prescribed adult

objectives. Schools,

funding sources, and curricular developers expect programs to

teach specific

outcomes and provide child-based results (Kagan & Cohen,

17). And more

and more parents expect their young children to be learning

specific academic

skills. If adults develop these standards and outcomes, there

is no room left for

child-centered learning-play. Ironically, at the same time we

are eliminating

play from the formal education of young children. Therefore,

many of our

children do not have access to the natural play experiences

we experienced as

children. They dont walk in the park collecting leaves,

throw stones in the

water to see the ever-expanding ripples, play

racing-of-the-sticks under the

bridge, build muddy castles on the banks of a cold stream, or

create a frontier

fort with their buddies. They dont scramble up gnarled

trees, skip across

meadows full of flowers, pick nuts from low branches, use a

fallen tree as a

natural balance beam, or sit on an old tractor imagining that

they are leading a

convoy of explorers across the Sahara Desert.

Why is Play Critical to Future Academic Success?

As we push more academics and computer instruction on young

children; as

we observe many of our childrens homes become dominated by

passive TV

watching and computer games; and as we see many of our

publicly funded

early childhood programs become downward extensions of public

schools, we

need to advocate for childrens right to play. More and more

parents question

the value of young children climbing trees, playing in the

sandbox, and

splashing paint all over themselves. Below are some of the

various kinds of

play, and why they are important.

Types of Play

Motor/Physical Play

Motor play provides critical opportunities for children to

develop both individual

gross and fine muscle strength and an overall integration of

muscles, nerves,

and brain functions. Recent research has confirmed the

critical link between

stimulating activity and brain development (Shore, 17).

Young children must

have ample opportunities to develop physically, and motor

play instills this

disposition toward physical activity. With so many American

adults

experiencing health problems from being overweight, we have a

responsibility

to encourage physical activity in young children.

Social Play

A variety of opportunities for children to engage in social

play are the best

mechanisms for progressing through the different social

stages. By interacting

with others in play settings, children learn social rules

such as, give and take,

reciprocity, cooperation, and sharing. Through a range of

interactions with

children at different social stages, children also learn to

use moral reasoning to

develop a mature sense of values. To be prepared to function

effectively in the

adult world, children need to participate in lots of social

play.

Constructive Play

Constructive play is when children manipulate their

environment to create

things. This type of play occurs when children build towers

and cities with

blocks, play in the sand, construct contraptions on the

woodworking bench,

and draw murals with chalk on the sidewalk. Constructive play

allows children

to experiment with objects; find out combinations that work

and dont work;

and learn basic knowledge about stacking, building, drawing,

damming, and

constructing. It also gives children a sense of

accomplishment and empowers

them with control of their environment. Children who are

comfortable

manipulating objects and materials also become good at

manipulating words,

ideas, and concepts.

Fantasy Play

Children learn to abstract, to try out new roles and possible

situations, and to

experiment with language and emotions with fantasy play. In

addition, children

develop flexible thinking; learn to create beyond the here

and now; stretch their

imaginations; use new words and word combinations in a

risk-free

environment; and use numbers and words to express ideas,

concepts,

dreams, and histories. In an ever-more technological society,

lots of practice

with all forms of abstraction-time, place, amount, symbols,

words, and ideas-is

essential.

Games With Rules

Developmentally, most children progress from an egocentric

view of the world

to an understanding of the importance of social contracts and

rules. Part of

this development occurs as they learn that games like Follow

the Leader, Red

Rover, Simon Says, baseball, and soccer cannot function

without everyone

adhering to the same set of rules. This games with rules

Please note that this sample paper on Early childhood Education is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Early childhood Education, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Early childhood Education will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Organisational Behavior : Communication in the workplace

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1. INTRODUCTION

Communications is the transfer and understanding of meaning. It involves the process of gathering, processing and distributing information, which not only touches but is also a vital activity in any place of work and all of the organization's functions.

" In any exhaustive theory of organization, communication would occupy a central place."

- Chester I. Bernard

Buy cheap Organisational Behavior : Communication in the workplace term paper

Communication is a social process in the functioning of any group, organization or community. It influences the decisions of an individual and later the decisions of the organization. Organization, defined as a stable system or structure of individuals who work together to achieve, through a hierarchy of ranks, common goals. This structure influences the way we communicate in terms of the method, amount of information, channels etc.

The main reason for studying and understanding organizational communication is that it is highly structured. Through communication, individuals understand their roles and functions in the organization. This behavior in application within the organization also affects how the organization reacts to and with the outside world.

For the purpose of this paper , we will see and analyze the communication within the organization registered as IPSH Gasmaster Sdn Bhd, a trading company in the sales and service of gas detection, gas analysis, industrial hygiene, sound level monitoring and thermal stress equipment for the industries dealing with Health, Safety and Environmental issues.

IPSH Sdn Bhd, a trading company representing many types of instrumentation and analysis systems for many fields in industry. Started out from a small organization in 186 with 6 staff, now it has grown to a workforce of 5 in the year 00. Main business had come from the sewerage treatment and water treatment plants, semiconductor factories and food industries.

Among the types of equipment represented are

Herose Cryogenic Valves

Gemu - Plastic & Metal Valves

GLI - pH. ORP, DO, Turbidity, Chlorine Analysers

Mann Process Control

Nohken Float, Paddle, Capacitance, Level Switches, Transmitters

Seojin Float, Paddle, Capacitance, Level Switches, Transmitters

Hawk Microwave, Ultrasonic Level, Flow Controller

GMI Gas Measurement Instrumentation

Crowcon Fixed / Portable Gas Detection

Mesin - Car Park Emission Monitors

Kane May Portable Gas Analysis

Signal Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems, Air Quality Monitoring,

Automotive Exhaust Analysis

Quest Sound Level Monitors, Noise Dosimeters, Indoor Air Quality

Monitors, Thermal/Heat Stress Monitors, Gas Detection,

Audiometric Calibration systems

In 17, the company had taken steps to diversify into the fields of gas detection and gas analysis. Thus the subsidiary, IPSH Gasmaster Sdn Bhd was born. It had also created a new subsidiary in Penang called IPSH (Penang) Sdn Bhd to cater for the Northern region of Malaysia.

Communication has been a vital tool in the development and expansion of all the three companies either between the companies or within each of the companies themselves.

. COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is divided into several elements, which are the communication source, the message, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver and feedback.

Encoding Noise Decoding

Feedback

Communication Source

Usually the source of information would be in the direction from one to one individual or one to many. In IPSH Gasmaster, the communication sources come from all of the staff and are directed in all directions. Examples are from the sales manager to his sales executive(s) or service engineer(s) either individually one to one or one to many.

Message

Message normally conveyed in IPSH Gasmaster would normally be for the update or status of current / outstanding jobs, projects or leads. It would be to enquire of how firm the job award would be, how much is expected within the month or quarter, how much margin is available, when delivery is expected, when completion of works and when the collection of the payment would be due. Sales Manager would ask for the above or colleagues would be following up on the others so that a job that has been shared together for example a tender document for TNB Generation for supply of Continuous Emissions Monitoring in Serdang or Kapar.

Encoding

Encoding would be the conversion of the message into symbols or any other simplified version. The encoding would only be effective should both the sender and the receiver are having the common mode or channel of communication. Most of the staff have similar backgrounds in their studies and experience with the instrumentation so the encoding and decoding of info is important to enable the message not to be misinterpreted.

Channel

Channels of conveying information would in the form of verbal when both sender and receiver are in the same time and place. Other than these instances, since mostly business is carried out away from the office, at customer's place or at site, information to be communicated would be through mobile phone where all staff have an account with Maxis for domestic calls and account with Weblink Communications for calls that are to be made overseas. Mobile phones are used when requiring immediate response, by memo placed on board or respective desks or via individual e-mail addresses.

Decoding

This is the process of retranslating the sender's message. The more the receiver's decoding is matching the intended message, the more effective the communication has been. The same is applied as in the encoding process just that it is in reverse.

Receiver

The intended receiver would have access to the tools required to enable him to decode the message sent from the sender. The manager realizes that for a more seasoned executive he can use more advanced system of codes due to the receiver's past experience, personal interpretation, expectation and mutuality of meaning between the two parties.

Feedback

Feedback is the response that is given by the receiver to the original sender in this case of what has transpired or what would be carried out and a certain time frame so the sender can ultimately know when to ask again of the matter either immediate or later. In some cases however, there are instances where no feedback is required for example when the management makes an announcement of changes made in the company policy or procedures. This is one-way communication. Most one way communications are memos or announcements of any changes to schedules etc.

Noise

Disturbance that interferes with the transmission, receipt or feedback of the message is called noise. Noise would be in the form of having a bad connection or line in the phone, situated at a noisy site, server being bottlenecked or even virus infection to the computer server systems or the language used itself such as the language grasp, accent etc. When at site especially in factories even the mobile phone has problems of coverage and clarity. For this at times in the factories such as Motorola or National Panasonic, we are communicating via walkie talkies.

. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication serves many functions mainly for the below

Control

Communication controls a person's behavior. It helps in promoting stability and control whereby the organizational chart has predetermined the hierarchy of status and pecking order thus reinforcing chain of command. It determines that flow of information such as from the Sales Manager to Sales Engineers or from the Service Engineer to his Assistant Engineers.

Motivation

Communication can enhance a person or group's motivation. It could be giving a greater responsibility to certain groups or even to inform all of the success and achievements that have been entailed by an individual or group. This in turn would increase the self-esteem and morale of the staff. This is mostly done in the monthly sales or group meeting either within IPSH Gasmaster only or when combined with IPSH Sdn Bhd.

Indicate Emotions

Members in a group can show their dissatisfaction or anger through communication. This is mostly concerning any misunderstanding, problems faced and the only way to get any resolutions are when all parties involved can actually sit down at one time and handle any crisis at hand.

Providing Information

With information provided through communication, opinions can be shared and able to update on better ways to do their jobs and coordination in order to facilitate decision-making. With the many types of customers and projects handled up to date each of the staff have different experiences that are shared with others.

Examine Problems

Meetings or discussions can create a pool of shared knowledge as each of the staff has different ways of tackling problems and situations. Should a problem arise faced by a colleague, others can share their problem solving tips and remedies based on the past experience, judgment and culture.

Examine Work Routine / Procedure

With better communication, the different department of sales, service, accounts, shipping, human resource etc would be better coordinated and with the establishment of a smooth workflow will create a more efficient and harmonious environment in the workplace. Example is in the process of purchasing requisition, shipping instructions etc. Not every client is the same, for this the sales coordinator has to monitor the flow of paper work so that all goes smoothly and not jeopardize any of the operations within the company and with the outside world.

Provide Feedback

With communication especially when in groups, it would be easier for the management to obtain response and feedback from the staff in one seating and to be able to address the future solutions and suggestions of achieving the best out of the performance of the organization.

4. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

" Communication is a great deal more talked about than understood"

- Lee Thayer

Differing frame of reference between the sender and the receiver

Information could be misinterpreted should the sender and receiver not be able to have a similar reference such as the pricing from the price list. Some items have been indicated as to be nett and others to be list price with 0-0% of distributor discount for example from Kane we receive 40% distributor discount on list price, from Quest we receive 5% discount on list price but for Signal Ambitech we get the pricing as nett to us.

Hearing what you expect to hear

People sometimes are rigid in the way they perceive message from someone. Example if normally a sales staff wants something urgent from the service department they would take it as by the end of the day or the next day, but in a certain instance the term urgent was to be by the end of the hour as the sales staff had an important appointment by lunchtime. Any delays would cause tension among the staff and also between the staff and the client.

Unclear message / language

In organizations where the staff come from various backgrounds of ethnicity and religion may interpret a message differently due to this or even due to the heavy accent or local lingo. Chinese dialects or even Chinese speaking English may not be effectively understood by a Scotsman and vice versa. An example is for a service problem conveyed by Henry Por who is more comfortable speaking Hokkien than English with Stephen Herron who speaks English but with a very thick Scottish accent.

Interpretation errors in the receipt of the message

This would the main reason why the communication is full of problems which are due to a combination of all the factors listed in this section.

The necessity to condense information for the purposes of transmission

For purpose of cost cutting, time constraint, reducing paper wastage etc, some messages being condensed are also incomplete. By the time message is received, then another message would be required to ask for further information which may take even more time and cost than if it was sent out properly in the first place. Examples are the SMS, memos on the e-mail.

Social distance or status barriers between the sender and receiver

This would be on an extreme such as between a managing director and with the receptionist or a general worker and a CEO of a MNC. This case would be best illustrated in The Black Hole of Calcutta incident where the British prisoners 146 in total were forced into space sufficient for 10 and caused deaths of all but of the prisoners. The lieutenants followed their orders in too literal fashion.

Deliberate omission of information

During staff or sales development meetings normally the sales staff would be giving the management a rosier picture than what is in reality. Figures normally would be brushed up to make sales figures look better. At the same time for proposals, which the chances are less than optimistic then, they would omit it from the report so as not to be penalized for their failures in securing the job.

Work overload or communication overload

At times the staff are burdened by a huge amount of information and projects suddenly and during this period due to information or work overload than some information may not be conveyed or received properly and which causes anxiety and also stress in the workplace and processes. I myself have been suffering this problem as within the company , I am the only one at this time that does not have an assistant in the coverage of my territory of coverage.

Credibility of the sender of the message

The receiver usually has a pre conceived perception of messages from a sender. In terms of credibility, it would be regarded more highly should it come from the managing director than if it come from a junior technician.

Ignoring information that conflicts with what we know

When receiving information that is not in the norm of the past, managers are more inclined to disregard the info or opinions of everybody else and choose to keep to their own ideas. As with experience, people tend to see the problems faced differently and think that since what was done before was right than the same would be applicable to all situations.

Inconsistent non-verbal signals

Facial expressions, posture and tone of voice give indications of how a staff really feel and react in different surroundings. Looking worried and hurried in handling jobs, show anxiety even though the staff say that everything is under control.

Emotions

Human behavior is mostly influenced by its emotions. A manager would accept information more freely an employee who has been more cooperative, involved and dedicated as compared to any of those less aggressive or hardworking.

Noise

Nobody can respond to all noise from every single source. For this it requires the ability to block out as many noise factors by eliminating the sources or getting others to attend to the less urgent matters at hand.

HOW IPSH GASMASTER OVERCOMES BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

There are many ways that we practice to enable us to tackle problems and increase the effectiveness of communication such as face-to-face communication, being more aware of environment and background in the company or with others, identifying symbolic meanings, using simple and direct language without presumptions and idiomatic expressions, repeating the message especially when no reply or action taken, asking for feedback and having two-way communication.

5. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Organizational communication can be better understood by also looking at the channels of communication.

Formal Communication

Formal Communication refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one's job. It is dependant on degree of decentralization and levels in management. For example when asked to complete a task with orders from the manager, an employee has communicated formally. It also works the other way around if the employee brings a problem to the attention to the manager. Usually for IPSH it would be in the form of e-mails, memos and weekly or monthly meetings.

Informal Communication

Informal Communication is what type of communication that is not defined by the structural hierarchy. Examples are for the lunch breaks, passing each other in the hallway or near the photocopy machine, exercising at the gym etc. Informal communication permits social interaction needs and also improves organization's performance by creating a more efficient and frequently faster channel of communication. In IPSH and IPSH Gasmaster, we enjoy informal communication when going out for camping trips, weekly badminton sessions on Sunday, hanging out for coffee on Fridays etc.

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Communication networks are divided into five types

Star or Wheel Network

Most centralized of all. One person at the middle/center is the leader/decision maker and all communication must flow through him. Decisions are made quickly but changes are slow as all is controlled by one.

'Y' Network

Also centralized but more for relatively simpler problems that require little interaction among group members.

Circle/Ring Network

More decentralized with the flow being slow, disorganized and noisy, it is adaptable and suitable for solving complex problems with many variables.

Chain Network

Linear chain, which is slow and takes very long time to solve problems. Accuracy is high, moderate level of leadership and moderate member satisfaction

All-channel Network

Every member is in contact with every other member and sharing of information is between all parties is possible. It has a high member satisfaction. Suitable for solving complex problems but it does not perform well under pressure when decisions need to be made quickly.

For IPSH and IPSH Gasmaster, it can be seen that it practices the All-Channel Network as for any job at one time would most probably be involving at least 70% of the total staff involvement and at times it can also involve all the 100% of staff.

Directors, Sales Manager, Assistant Managers, Sales Engineers, Service Engineers, Assistant Engineers and Sales coordinators all have direct access to each other let it be via electronic means or verbally as the office itself is having an open concept with minimal barrier or walls.

6. COMMUNICATIONS & TECHNOLOGY

" All human action takes place in a crossfire of information"

- Torsten Hagerstrand

In the past 5 years, with the emergence of the internet, usage of computers and other technological advances had contributed to the information and response time be cut down by tenfold. Internally for IPSH Gasmaster, the information being relayed among colleagues and from staff to the management has been more effective. No more lost memos, less paper usage where with the use of e-mailing system, the staff can see what information required even after hours or at his own convenience.

Nowadays, the communication between IPSH and the suppliers in the US, UK, Japan, Korea, Germany, Austria, France etc has been very efficient. With e-mail, the response can be at the person's own time according to their time zone. No need to wait till 4 pm in Malaysia to call the UK which would cost a bomb and also not necessarily be clear. With e-mail, UK or US suppliers can send their proposals via e-mail format. Reply for any service problems would be faster and more reliable than by using a fax machine.

In terms of cost and time saving, the internet also is used by suppliers to send files which contain new developments, product catalogs, comparisons to other brands, operational and maintenance manuals. Normal courier would take between 1 to weeks to deliver and also be expensive, while the quantity would be limited. With e-mail attachments in Adobe Acrobat form, IPSH can printout the catalogues indefinitely.

For the sales staff also it has become more convenient as all the details of their products can be burned into a CD-ROM and with this they can bring along a notebook PC and show the catalogues on the PC. In the PC also the sales people can also show picture files saved of any sites that are remote from the prospective customer. If the customer is far away, sales personnel can e-mail to the customer first and when the customer has gained some knowledge of what he has in mind, that later the sales staff can come over and explain in detail of what would meet the required specifications. Thus saving time, petrol and toll charges.

Remote capability has also enabled sales and service staff to reply to the customers and management faster even though they are outstation for long periods of time. A fair amount of time is spent outside of the office for both sales and service staff. Should a sales staff working in the East Coast gets a call from a customer in Johore requiring a quotation sent to him, he could call the office using the mobile phone or if after hours, send the details to the office where the sales coordinator in PJ would type it out on his behalf. The pricing of the equipment is normally kept in the office. Later, the sales coordinator gives a call to the sales personnel where as he has confirmed the price, specification and quantity only then would the quotation be faxed out to the customer in Johore.

Other than the e-mailing system, Notebook PC, CD-ROMs and handphones, the digital camera has also played its role as a technological factor. Upon reaching a site, it has been much easier to come up with a proper proposal for equipment that are to be installed at site. No more need to draw a layout, can printout the photo or save it to file for reference or even e-mail it to the supplier should there be any complication at site or in the service department. IPSH sends the photos for advice on installation if required as well as for warranty replacement should the equipment fail within the warranty period.

7. CONCLUSION / SUMMARY

By analyzing the previous communication factors that directly affect the organization of IPSH, it can be seen that the management has not been naïve in its practices that lead to the development and growth of IPSH all this while through clear and effective communication.

Any organization that wants to survive for as long as IPSH has for the past 16 years, and also to grow would have to weigh out the most appropriate practices in communicating and see for itself how these factors affect their organization as for each organization the actions may be the same but the outcome may not be as desired.

With such vital information the management will be able to anticipate what the future holds. It must identify what would threat the organization's existence. It should also have a clear vision in order to achieve its set aims and goals. Up till now it has strived and always anticipating change would be an essential ingredient for future success.

REFERENCES

Communication in Organizations, Rogers, Everett & Rogers, Rekha,

Macmillan Inc, 176

Management nd Edition, Gabriel, Vincent, Longman, 16

Management 7th Edition, Robbins, Stephen P.& Coulter, Mary,

Prentice Hall, 00

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Mollucicidal effects of kamias

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Abstract

The golden snail (Pomacea canaliculata) was introduced intentionally in Asia in 180 with the expectation that it could be cultivated as a high-protein food source for local consumption and as an export commodity for high-income countries. The taste was however not accepted by the masses and so the project was exterminated. Due to improper disposal, it invaded Philippine rice systems, where it dispersed through extensive irrigation networks. The golden snail feeds voraciously on young rice seedlings. This paper analyzes the molluscicidal effect of kamias leaf extract. The main purpose of the production of such pesticide is to create low-costing and efficient pesticides especially because our country is agricultural based. For more than a decade now, these snails have affected the country's rice harvests by up to 60% loss. The project produces an efficient pesticede, efficient in terms of low-costing and effectively eliminates such pests. So, here comes our Kamias leaf extract, a very economical and cheap pesticide and very abundant in the Philippines, Natural and non-toxic to the environment. The kamias leaf extract pesticide could be the revolutionary product of the country in agricultural innovation.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Do my essay on mollucicidal effects of kamias CHEAP !

Background of the study 05

Statement of the problem 08

Hypothesis 0

Objectives 10

Significance 11

Scope and limitations of the Study 1

Inclusive Dates and Places 1

Definition of terms 14

Survey of related Literature and Studies 15

Methodology

Materials 1

Procedure 1

Data and Results

Tables 4

Analysis of Data 7

Conclusion 8

Recommendations

Bibliography 0

Acknowledgements

I. Introduction

Background of the Study

The golden snail is indigenous to South America and was first introduced into Asia in 17-180. It was introduced intentionally to the region with the expectation that it could be cultivated as a high-protein food source for domestic consumption and as an export commodity for industrialized countries, where there has long been a cultivated taste for escargot. One of the most alluring features of the snail entrepreneurs and one of the most dreaded features for ecologists is that it has a voracious appetite and breeds extremely rapid. As a result, vast quantities of large snails (up to the size of an apple, and hence its American name, golden apple snail) can be produced for market within irrelatively short time period, with low investment costs in terms of initial snail inputs. Potential financial returns to production are therefore substantial in the short run, provided that a viable market exists for the golden snail and that other inputs, particularly an abundance of soft, leafy vegetation and a constant fresh water supply, are available at relatively low prices. Because of its easy maintenance and fast breeding, the snail was referred to as a "golden miracle snail" at the time of its introduction.

The snail was identified first in Guadeloupe, Brazil, but is thought to have originated from the swampy regions in the catchments of the Paranga River in Paraguay. Populations of the golden snail have also been abundant in coastal rise-growing areas of Surinam, where they became a major pest when large-scale irrigated rice production began in the 150's. Given the history of the golden apple snail as a major pest in irrigated rice in Surinam, it is surprising that it was intentionally introducedeven under controlled conditions into Asian countries.

A combination of low market value and negligencepresumably correlatedsoon resulted in the release and escape of the golden snail into irrigation ditches and public waterways throughout the regions in which they were introduced. It can only be surmised that entrepreneurs spreading the snail throughout Asia where myopic, deceptive or simply ignorant of the market. A number of studies report that the market value for the snail dropped precipitously soon after its introduction, because industrialized countries maintained stringent health regulations that largely precluded its importation, and because Asian consumers did not like its taste. Despite its high protein content, even many low-income farmers in Asia have refused to eat the snail.

Initially the golden apple snail was smuggled illegally into Taiwan. From Taiwan, it was brought into Japan by entrepreneurs in 181 and was then introduced officially into the Philippines in 18, where it was endorsed by the department of Agriculture as a rural "livelihood" project. Later in the 180's, it was introduced into China, South Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Recent reports indicate that it was also introduced in Laos and Papua New Guinea in the early 10's.

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Statement of the Problem

Our country, the Philippines, is in grave danger of starvation and greater agricultural breakdown because of the invincible population of the pest. Golden kuhol, The snail that eats rice seedlings and destroys the adult rice plant has been one of the major pests. The Filipino farmer thought before that it is the best way to have a better livelihood and the key to their success from making their life better is the golden snail due to its fast reproduction and high protein content. The Department of Agriculture introduced it for thinking that it would be a good source of agricultural economy and a controlled investment. Unfortunately, the plan to make the farmers rise from poverty only became a deeper problem. Now, the people are thinking of ways and alternatives on decreasing this disaster. Organic, inorganic, expensive and cheap pesticides made their way to stop this but none of them were the best to fit the Filipino farmer's pockets and expectations, effectively. Made from what is the alternative pesticide that is cheap, economical, easy to use, very abundant, non-toxic to humans, and environment-friendly.

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Hypothesis

The Kamias leaf extract, as a molluscicidal will be effective although will not yield a 100% mortality rate due to the coarseness of the process. Because of its natural property, its shelf life will be short unless refrigerated.

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Objectives

· to produce an effective pesticide

· to produce a natural pesticide

· to produce a low-cost pesticide

· to give a comparison between the pesticide made from nnkamias leaf extract and other methods of exterminating xxmollusks

· to give a theory based on what chemical exhibit

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Significance of the Study

The success of the study will open new doors to agricultural innovation. There will be a sudden change in the agricultural industry that may affect economic stability and economic growth. The common Filipino farmer will have a low budgeted high outcome harvest. The result of this will solve the problem of malnutrition in the Philippines which will cause for the concentration on the education and so on and so forth.

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Scope and Limitations

The paper aims to produce a pesticide that can efficiently eliminate mollusks specifically the golden snail of species name Pomacea canaliculata. The pesticide should not manipulate the normal growth of plants. The substances that will be used to create such pesticide should be abundant and of course, and cheap, so that it may be applicable to the typical Filipino farmers and agriculturists. The paper does not include of the utilization of chemicals that exhibit the moluscicidal effect of kamias leaf extract due to the lack of time and financial budget although a theory will be given based from other natural molluscicides. The project also displays the effectivity of the pesticide passing the boiling process and the blending process.

Inclusive Dates and Places

Dates Places Work Done

December 7, 001, Friday, 400 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Collecting of Kamias leaves

December 7, 001, Friday, 00 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Production of Solutions then refrigeration

December 8, 001, Saturday, 800 a.m. Nepa Q-mart EDSA Acquiring of golden snails

December 8, 001,Saturday, 845 a.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Cultivation period

December 8, 001, Saturday, 1000 a.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Testing of Solutions

December 8, 001, Saturday, 1000 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Collecting of results

Definition of Terms

Escargot native vietnamese delicasy made from golden snails

Hatchability chances of hatching

Molluscicidal intentional killing of mollusks

Monsoon a wind that blows along the Asiatic coast of the dddddddddddpacific

Mortality the number of deaths in a population during a zzzzzzzzzzzzzzspecified time

Myopic lack of insight or good judgement

Paddy a field in which rice is grown

II. Survey of Review of Related Literature and Studies

In hindsight, it seems evident that if the potential risks of snail infestation in irrigated rice had been weighed against the expected economic returns of snail cultivation, the golden apple snail would not have been introduced into Asia. Accurate marketing information about the snail was clearly absent, and the introduction apparently were made without analysis of the ecological dynamics of the snail and it's potential to invade flooded rice system. A better understanding of the probability of invasion and possible extent of damage from the invasion surely would have signaled the need for strict quarantine restriction throughout the region.

A successful invasion by any exotic species depends on both the vulnerability of the ecosystem to invasions and the characteristics of the invader as defined by its population dynamics and dispersal activity. Like most invasions of exotic species, the golden apple snail invasion occurred in a human altered and simplified ecosystem, with a lower number of species and predator-prey relationships than a natural, undisturbed ecosystem. Its main competitor, the native "kuhol" snail, is closely related, and therefore the natural biological control agents for snails in this system have been effective at controlling the exotic golden apple snail. The native regions of the golden snail in South America, characterized by coastal swamp area, are remarkably similar to wet rice ecosystem in Asia. The latter have thus provided a suitable environment for the golden apple snail's establishment.

Additional characteristics of successful invaders are that they often have high reproductive output, short juvenile periods, and high rates of dispersal. Sexual maturity is attained in 60-0 days after hatching, at which time the females begin laying eggs. Females lay about 0 eggs in a bright pink egg mass on rice plants, the walls of irrigation canals, and fences at any given time. A female typically produces between 400 and 8700 eggs per year, with hatchability of 7 to 0% depending on predator populations and human controls. Mating occurs at any time of the day among crowded plants and in all seasons of the year as long as there is a continuous supply of water. The golden snail reproduces about ten times faster than the native snail in Asian rice systems.

Successful invaders are dispersed rapidly by water, wind, or human activity, and tend to be resilient to changing climatic conditions. The golden snail is a fresh water snail, but it can also lead an amphibious life in the mud when the water recedes. The snail typically buries itself in moist mud and digs deeper into the ground as the dry season goes on. It can live dormant in the mud for 6-8 months, and then starts feeding again within minutes to hours once the soil is flooded. Given the monsoon patterns of Asia, the snail has a good chance of survival based on climatic conditions alone. It is most abundant in flood-prone areas and regions with poor water control, but it persistently reappears in high productivity irrigated areas where dispersal through canals is high.

The high correlation between characteristics of a successful invader based on ecological principles and characteristics of the golden snail in Asian rice systems indicate that the invasion of the snail could and should have been predicted. Indeed, the probability of invasion might have been estimated at well over 50% prior to the introduction. In hindsight, the probability of invasion was more in the order of 0%, given that virtually all reported introductions of the golden snail into the rice ecosystems have resulted in invasions.

The successful establishment and invasion of the golden snail in irrigated rice systems in many parts of Asia have led to significant economic damage. Farmers in the infested areas are faced with the options of paying additional costs to control the spread of snails, replanting damaged areas of paddy, or ignoring the problem altogether at the risk of potentially large yield losses. Yield lost is a function of the density and average size of snails in the paddy, as well as the age of the crop. Experimental studies showed that a density of 1 snail per meter squared of paddy can reducer the crop stand by roughly 0%, where as a density of 8 snails per meter squared can reduce the stand by over 0%. Experimental data also show that damage to rice in fields with large snails (over 5 cm.) Is about times greater than damage in the fields with small snails (under cm.).

Rice seedlings are most vulnerable to golden snails up to weeks after they have been transplanted or up to 4 weeks after they have been direct seeded. Direct-seeded rice suffers significantly more damage than transplanted rice, because golden snails consume greater amounts of the younger, more succulent, plants. Experimental data presented by Morallo-Rehesus et.al. Show that snail damage in uncontrolled fields can be as high as 100% for rice seedlings in the germinating stage, as opposed to 0% on average in the transplanting stage. Where snail infestations are severe, replanting can cost twice as much or more per hectare than the initial savings earned by direct seeding as opposed to transplanting. This point is of special significance because the newest rice varieties are being developed for Asia are much more likely to be direct seeded rather than transplanted.

Although molluscicides and insecticides are used widely in

The Philippines, Japan, and Taiwan to control golden snail infestation, several other control measures are available to farmers. The most effective forms of population control for the snails are handpicking, pasturing ducks in the paddy, and careful water control that includes the occasional drainage of fields and maintenance of water levels below one centimeter. Irrigation control is difficult to quantify, but the success rate for drainage can be 80 % or more in the dry season. In the monsoon season, farmers only have limited control over water levels paddy fields.

The extent to which each of these alternative control measure are used in the Philippines and other Asian rice growing countries depends on prices and institutions that govern labor costs, land holdings, duck markets, pesticide use and irrigations systems.

Literature Cited

1. Elton, C. 158. The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,

. Pimentel, D. 186. Biological invasions of plants and animals in agriculture amd forestry Ecol Stud. 58,14-16.

. Heywood, V. 18. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants In Biological Invasions A Global Perspective. Drake, J. A., Mooney, H. A., di Castro, E, Groves, R. H., Kruger, E J., Rejmamek, M., and Williamson, M. (eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester,

pp. 1-60.

4. Howarth, F. G. ;1. Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Ann. Rev Entomol 6, 485-50.

5. Madamba, C. and Camaya, E. 187. The golden snail boon or bane. Proceedings of the 18th Anniversary and Annual Convention of the Pest Control Council of the Philippines 1. Davao City, Philippines, pp. 4-50.

6. Acosta, B. and Pullin, R. (eds). 18. Summary Report of a Workshop on the Environmental Impact of the Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.) on Rice Farming Systems in the Philippines. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

7. Morallo-Rejesus, B., Sayaboc A.C. and Joshi R.C. 188. The Distribution and Control of the Introduced Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.j in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Symposium on Introduction of Germplasm and Plant Quarantine Procedures. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (December 14-15).

III. Methodology

Materials

Materials Quantity Price

Golden kuhol ½ kilo Php 0.00

Kamias leaves N/A N/A

Blender 1 N/A

Containers N/A

Cauldron 1 N/A

Atomizer 1 N/A

Procedures

1. The snails were given a day to adjust in their new environment by feeding them gabi leaves and water regularly.

. The first set of 50 kamias leaves were blended together with 100ml of water and then sifted with filter paper for it to be appropriate for the atomizer.

. The second set of 50 kamias leaves were boiled with 10ml of water, water was added because of evaporation.

4. Then, the kuhol was transferred to the containers, 5 kuhols per container.

5. The blended kamias leaf extract was put in the atomizer and was used on 5 snails in the 1st container (set-up 1).

6. Then, the boiled kamias leaf extract was put in the atomizer and was sprayed to 5 specific snails into the nd container (set-up ).

7. Then, the rd container was filled with an ample amount of water, but with out any kamias extract.

8. The set-up was observed after 1 hours.

. Observations were made.

10. Touching and smelling for decomposition determined mortalities.

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IV. Data & Results

Set-up Description Observation

1 Blended Kamias leaf solution 80% mortality ratethe other 0% were still active yet bubbles were seen on the set-upthe solution turned dark amber in color

Boiled Kamias leaf solution 60% mortality ratewith pinkish eggsthe other 40% were still active yet bubbles were seen on the set-up the solution turned dark orange in color

Tap water 0 mortality rateAll were still activeThe water was still colorless but with particles

Control Technique Success Rate

Hand Picking(most laborious) 8%

Pasturing Ducks(most expensive) 8%

Kamias Leaf Extract 80%

The set-ups, (from left) 1. container with with out kamias leaf extract . container with blended & sifted kamias leaf extract . container with boiled kamias leaf extract.

The container with blended & sifted kamias leaf extract atfter 1 hours.

Thr container with boiled kamias leaf extract after 1 hours.

The container with no kamias leaf extract after 1 hours

V. Analysis and Discussion

The results confirmed that there is lethal action of kamias leaf extract whose effect can be compared to that of a pesticide specifically with chemicals of saponin. However. We may infer that both the extract and pesticide are not fully capable of contributing to eradicate snails. Their defensive behavior such as the escape to the water container contribute to them to be unaffected by molluscicidal substances returning soon to the former infestation.

Despite the fact that the blended Kamias leaf extract yields an 80% mortality rate, surveys have confirmed that the snails will invariably re-infest the plantation which will greatly contribute to the production of such pesticide created due to its cheapness and abundance.

Because of that the kamias leaf extract is fully natural, it is based on theory that it will not affect the external ecosystem of the plant and the plant's natural growth although shelf life will be a problem.

VI. Conclusion

After weeks of research, the following conclusions were reached (1) the kamias leaves are extractable; () kamias leaf extract have molluscicidal properties; () the extracts have significantly weaker molluscicidal power than the commercial pesticide; and (4) the extracts obtained have short shelf life, unless refrigerated.

VII. Recommendation

1. This study may be replicated using other plants that could be tested for their molluscicidal activity.

. An increase or decrease in the concentration and time used in this research may be done to further know their effect in snails.

. In continuing the study for their molluscicidal potential using the same plants, the researcher recommends the extraction of pure saponin from the plants to know if it has the same effect as the crude extract used in this study.

4. In addition, screening for toxicity of the same plants for its effect on other organisms like fishes, is encouraged.

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VIII. Bibliography

1. I. Elton, C. 158. The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,

. Pimentel, D. 186. Biological invasions of plants and animals in agriculture amd forestry Ecol. Stud. 58,14-16.

. Heywood, V. 18. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants In Biological Invasions A Global Perspective. Drake, J. A., Mooney, H. A., di Castro, E, Groves, R. H., Kruger, E J., Rejmamek, M., and Williamson, M. (eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 1-60.

4. Howarth, F. G. ;1. Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Ann. Rev Entomol 6, 485-50.

5. Harris, P. 10 Environmental impact of introduced biological control agents. In Critical issues in Biological Control. Mackauer, M., Ehler, L. E., and Roland, J. (eds). Intercept Publishers, Andover, England, pp. 8-00.

6. Pomacea canaliculata is synonymous with Ampullaria canaliculata and Ampullarius canaliculata, and is commonly referred to as Lamarck.

7. Madamba, C. and Camaya, E. 187. The golden snail boon or bane. Proceedings of the 18th Anniversary and Annual Convention of the Pest Control Council of the Philippines 1. Davao City, Philippines, pp. 4-50.

8 Acosta, B. and Pullin, R. (eds). 18. Summary Report of a Workshop on the Environmental Impact of the Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.) on Rice Farming Systems in the Philippines. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

. Morallo-Rejesus, B., Sayaboc A.C. and Joshi R.C. 188. The Distribution and Control of the Introduced Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.j in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Symposium on Introduction of Germplasm and Plant Quarantine Procedures. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (December 14-15).

10. DOA Philippines/FAO (Department of Agriculture in the Philippines and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). 18. Integrated Golden Kuhol Management. Handbook prepared for Filipino farmers and extension workers. Manila, Philippines.

11. Cruz, R. 187. Golden snail infest rice and corn fields in six towns. Manila J. 4, p. 4.

1. Buendia, L.M. 188. The golden apple snail A rice menace. Monitor 16, 6.

1. Santos, E.J. 187. Golden apple snail Food and farm pest. Agribusiness Weekly 1. Manila, Philippines, pp. 14-15.

14. Revilla, I.M., Estoy, G.E and Salazar, EV.. 11. State of Golden Kuhol Infestation in Selected Rice Farming Villages of Nueva Ecija. Paper presented at the Workshop on Golden Kuhol Management in the Philippines. PhilRice. Munoz. Nueva Ecija, Philippines (7-1 October).

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