Organisational Behavior : Communication in the workplace

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1. INTRODUCTION

Communications is the transfer and understanding of meaning. It involves the process of gathering, processing and distributing information, which not only touches but is also a vital activity in any place of work and all of the organization's functions.

" In any exhaustive theory of organization, communication would occupy a central place."

- Chester I. Bernard

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Communication is a social process in the functioning of any group, organization or community. It influences the decisions of an individual and later the decisions of the organization. Organization, defined as a stable system or structure of individuals who work together to achieve, through a hierarchy of ranks, common goals. This structure influences the way we communicate in terms of the method, amount of information, channels etc.

The main reason for studying and understanding organizational communication is that it is highly structured. Through communication, individuals understand their roles and functions in the organization. This behavior in application within the organization also affects how the organization reacts to and with the outside world.

For the purpose of this paper , we will see and analyze the communication within the organization registered as IPSH Gasmaster Sdn Bhd, a trading company in the sales and service of gas detection, gas analysis, industrial hygiene, sound level monitoring and thermal stress equipment for the industries dealing with Health, Safety and Environmental issues.

IPSH Sdn Bhd, a trading company representing many types of instrumentation and analysis systems for many fields in industry. Started out from a small organization in 186 with 6 staff, now it has grown to a workforce of 5 in the year 00. Main business had come from the sewerage treatment and water treatment plants, semiconductor factories and food industries.

Among the types of equipment represented are

Herose Cryogenic Valves

Gemu - Plastic & Metal Valves

GLI - pH. ORP, DO, Turbidity, Chlorine Analysers

Mann Process Control

Nohken Float, Paddle, Capacitance, Level Switches, Transmitters

Seojin Float, Paddle, Capacitance, Level Switches, Transmitters

Hawk Microwave, Ultrasonic Level, Flow Controller

GMI Gas Measurement Instrumentation

Crowcon Fixed / Portable Gas Detection

Mesin - Car Park Emission Monitors

Kane May Portable Gas Analysis

Signal Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems, Air Quality Monitoring,

Automotive Exhaust Analysis

Quest Sound Level Monitors, Noise Dosimeters, Indoor Air Quality

Monitors, Thermal/Heat Stress Monitors, Gas Detection,

Audiometric Calibration systems

In 17, the company had taken steps to diversify into the fields of gas detection and gas analysis. Thus the subsidiary, IPSH Gasmaster Sdn Bhd was born. It had also created a new subsidiary in Penang called IPSH (Penang) Sdn Bhd to cater for the Northern region of Malaysia.

Communication has been a vital tool in the development and expansion of all the three companies either between the companies or within each of the companies themselves.

. COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is divided into several elements, which are the communication source, the message, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver and feedback.

Encoding Noise Decoding

Feedback

Communication Source

Usually the source of information would be in the direction from one to one individual or one to many. In IPSH Gasmaster, the communication sources come from all of the staff and are directed in all directions. Examples are from the sales manager to his sales executive(s) or service engineer(s) either individually one to one or one to many.

Message

Message normally conveyed in IPSH Gasmaster would normally be for the update or status of current / outstanding jobs, projects or leads. It would be to enquire of how firm the job award would be, how much is expected within the month or quarter, how much margin is available, when delivery is expected, when completion of works and when the collection of the payment would be due. Sales Manager would ask for the above or colleagues would be following up on the others so that a job that has been shared together for example a tender document for TNB Generation for supply of Continuous Emissions Monitoring in Serdang or Kapar.

Encoding

Encoding would be the conversion of the message into symbols or any other simplified version. The encoding would only be effective should both the sender and the receiver are having the common mode or channel of communication. Most of the staff have similar backgrounds in their studies and experience with the instrumentation so the encoding and decoding of info is important to enable the message not to be misinterpreted.

Channel

Channels of conveying information would in the form of verbal when both sender and receiver are in the same time and place. Other than these instances, since mostly business is carried out away from the office, at customer's place or at site, information to be communicated would be through mobile phone where all staff have an account with Maxis for domestic calls and account with Weblink Communications for calls that are to be made overseas. Mobile phones are used when requiring immediate response, by memo placed on board or respective desks or via individual e-mail addresses.

Decoding

This is the process of retranslating the sender's message. The more the receiver's decoding is matching the intended message, the more effective the communication has been. The same is applied as in the encoding process just that it is in reverse.

Receiver

The intended receiver would have access to the tools required to enable him to decode the message sent from the sender. The manager realizes that for a more seasoned executive he can use more advanced system of codes due to the receiver's past experience, personal interpretation, expectation and mutuality of meaning between the two parties.

Feedback

Feedback is the response that is given by the receiver to the original sender in this case of what has transpired or what would be carried out and a certain time frame so the sender can ultimately know when to ask again of the matter either immediate or later. In some cases however, there are instances where no feedback is required for example when the management makes an announcement of changes made in the company policy or procedures. This is one-way communication. Most one way communications are memos or announcements of any changes to schedules etc.

Noise

Disturbance that interferes with the transmission, receipt or feedback of the message is called noise. Noise would be in the form of having a bad connection or line in the phone, situated at a noisy site, server being bottlenecked or even virus infection to the computer server systems or the language used itself such as the language grasp, accent etc. When at site especially in factories even the mobile phone has problems of coverage and clarity. For this at times in the factories such as Motorola or National Panasonic, we are communicating via walkie talkies.

. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication serves many functions mainly for the below

Control

Communication controls a person's behavior. It helps in promoting stability and control whereby the organizational chart has predetermined the hierarchy of status and pecking order thus reinforcing chain of command. It determines that flow of information such as from the Sales Manager to Sales Engineers or from the Service Engineer to his Assistant Engineers.

Motivation

Communication can enhance a person or group's motivation. It could be giving a greater responsibility to certain groups or even to inform all of the success and achievements that have been entailed by an individual or group. This in turn would increase the self-esteem and morale of the staff. This is mostly done in the monthly sales or group meeting either within IPSH Gasmaster only or when combined with IPSH Sdn Bhd.

Indicate Emotions

Members in a group can show their dissatisfaction or anger through communication. This is mostly concerning any misunderstanding, problems faced and the only way to get any resolutions are when all parties involved can actually sit down at one time and handle any crisis at hand.

Providing Information

With information provided through communication, opinions can be shared and able to update on better ways to do their jobs and coordination in order to facilitate decision-making. With the many types of customers and projects handled up to date each of the staff have different experiences that are shared with others.

Examine Problems

Meetings or discussions can create a pool of shared knowledge as each of the staff has different ways of tackling problems and situations. Should a problem arise faced by a colleague, others can share their problem solving tips and remedies based on the past experience, judgment and culture.

Examine Work Routine / Procedure

With better communication, the different department of sales, service, accounts, shipping, human resource etc would be better coordinated and with the establishment of a smooth workflow will create a more efficient and harmonious environment in the workplace. Example is in the process of purchasing requisition, shipping instructions etc. Not every client is the same, for this the sales coordinator has to monitor the flow of paper work so that all goes smoothly and not jeopardize any of the operations within the company and with the outside world.

Provide Feedback

With communication especially when in groups, it would be easier for the management to obtain response and feedback from the staff in one seating and to be able to address the future solutions and suggestions of achieving the best out of the performance of the organization.

4. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

" Communication is a great deal more talked about than understood"

- Lee Thayer

Differing frame of reference between the sender and the receiver

Information could be misinterpreted should the sender and receiver not be able to have a similar reference such as the pricing from the price list. Some items have been indicated as to be nett and others to be list price with 0-0% of distributor discount for example from Kane we receive 40% distributor discount on list price, from Quest we receive 5% discount on list price but for Signal Ambitech we get the pricing as nett to us.

Hearing what you expect to hear

People sometimes are rigid in the way they perceive message from someone. Example if normally a sales staff wants something urgent from the service department they would take it as by the end of the day or the next day, but in a certain instance the term urgent was to be by the end of the hour as the sales staff had an important appointment by lunchtime. Any delays would cause tension among the staff and also between the staff and the client.

Unclear message / language

In organizations where the staff come from various backgrounds of ethnicity and religion may interpret a message differently due to this or even due to the heavy accent or local lingo. Chinese dialects or even Chinese speaking English may not be effectively understood by a Scotsman and vice versa. An example is for a service problem conveyed by Henry Por who is more comfortable speaking Hokkien than English with Stephen Herron who speaks English but with a very thick Scottish accent.

Interpretation errors in the receipt of the message

This would the main reason why the communication is full of problems which are due to a combination of all the factors listed in this section.

The necessity to condense information for the purposes of transmission

For purpose of cost cutting, time constraint, reducing paper wastage etc, some messages being condensed are also incomplete. By the time message is received, then another message would be required to ask for further information which may take even more time and cost than if it was sent out properly in the first place. Examples are the SMS, memos on the e-mail.

Social distance or status barriers between the sender and receiver

This would be on an extreme such as between a managing director and with the receptionist or a general worker and a CEO of a MNC. This case would be best illustrated in The Black Hole of Calcutta incident where the British prisoners 146 in total were forced into space sufficient for 10 and caused deaths of all but of the prisoners. The lieutenants followed their orders in too literal fashion.

Deliberate omission of information

During staff or sales development meetings normally the sales staff would be giving the management a rosier picture than what is in reality. Figures normally would be brushed up to make sales figures look better. At the same time for proposals, which the chances are less than optimistic then, they would omit it from the report so as not to be penalized for their failures in securing the job.

Work overload or communication overload

At times the staff are burdened by a huge amount of information and projects suddenly and during this period due to information or work overload than some information may not be conveyed or received properly and which causes anxiety and also stress in the workplace and processes. I myself have been suffering this problem as within the company , I am the only one at this time that does not have an assistant in the coverage of my territory of coverage.

Credibility of the sender of the message

The receiver usually has a pre conceived perception of messages from a sender. In terms of credibility, it would be regarded more highly should it come from the managing director than if it come from a junior technician.

Ignoring information that conflicts with what we know

When receiving information that is not in the norm of the past, managers are more inclined to disregard the info or opinions of everybody else and choose to keep to their own ideas. As with experience, people tend to see the problems faced differently and think that since what was done before was right than the same would be applicable to all situations.

Inconsistent non-verbal signals

Facial expressions, posture and tone of voice give indications of how a staff really feel and react in different surroundings. Looking worried and hurried in handling jobs, show anxiety even though the staff say that everything is under control.

Emotions

Human behavior is mostly influenced by its emotions. A manager would accept information more freely an employee who has been more cooperative, involved and dedicated as compared to any of those less aggressive or hardworking.

Noise

Nobody can respond to all noise from every single source. For this it requires the ability to block out as many noise factors by eliminating the sources or getting others to attend to the less urgent matters at hand.

HOW IPSH GASMASTER OVERCOMES BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

There are many ways that we practice to enable us to tackle problems and increase the effectiveness of communication such as face-to-face communication, being more aware of environment and background in the company or with others, identifying symbolic meanings, using simple and direct language without presumptions and idiomatic expressions, repeating the message especially when no reply or action taken, asking for feedback and having two-way communication.

5. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Organizational communication can be better understood by also looking at the channels of communication.

Formal Communication

Formal Communication refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one's job. It is dependant on degree of decentralization and levels in management. For example when asked to complete a task with orders from the manager, an employee has communicated formally. It also works the other way around if the employee brings a problem to the attention to the manager. Usually for IPSH it would be in the form of e-mails, memos and weekly or monthly meetings.

Informal Communication

Informal Communication is what type of communication that is not defined by the structural hierarchy. Examples are for the lunch breaks, passing each other in the hallway or near the photocopy machine, exercising at the gym etc. Informal communication permits social interaction needs and also improves organization's performance by creating a more efficient and frequently faster channel of communication. In IPSH and IPSH Gasmaster, we enjoy informal communication when going out for camping trips, weekly badminton sessions on Sunday, hanging out for coffee on Fridays etc.

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Communication networks are divided into five types

Star or Wheel Network

Most centralized of all. One person at the middle/center is the leader/decision maker and all communication must flow through him. Decisions are made quickly but changes are slow as all is controlled by one.

'Y' Network

Also centralized but more for relatively simpler problems that require little interaction among group members.

Circle/Ring Network

More decentralized with the flow being slow, disorganized and noisy, it is adaptable and suitable for solving complex problems with many variables.

Chain Network

Linear chain, which is slow and takes very long time to solve problems. Accuracy is high, moderate level of leadership and moderate member satisfaction

All-channel Network

Every member is in contact with every other member and sharing of information is between all parties is possible. It has a high member satisfaction. Suitable for solving complex problems but it does not perform well under pressure when decisions need to be made quickly.

For IPSH and IPSH Gasmaster, it can be seen that it practices the All-Channel Network as for any job at one time would most probably be involving at least 70% of the total staff involvement and at times it can also involve all the 100% of staff.

Directors, Sales Manager, Assistant Managers, Sales Engineers, Service Engineers, Assistant Engineers and Sales coordinators all have direct access to each other let it be via electronic means or verbally as the office itself is having an open concept with minimal barrier or walls.

6. COMMUNICATIONS & TECHNOLOGY

" All human action takes place in a crossfire of information"

- Torsten Hagerstrand

In the past 5 years, with the emergence of the internet, usage of computers and other technological advances had contributed to the information and response time be cut down by tenfold. Internally for IPSH Gasmaster, the information being relayed among colleagues and from staff to the management has been more effective. No more lost memos, less paper usage where with the use of e-mailing system, the staff can see what information required even after hours or at his own convenience.

Nowadays, the communication between IPSH and the suppliers in the US, UK, Japan, Korea, Germany, Austria, France etc has been very efficient. With e-mail, the response can be at the person's own time according to their time zone. No need to wait till 4 pm in Malaysia to call the UK which would cost a bomb and also not necessarily be clear. With e-mail, UK or US suppliers can send their proposals via e-mail format. Reply for any service problems would be faster and more reliable than by using a fax machine.

In terms of cost and time saving, the internet also is used by suppliers to send files which contain new developments, product catalogs, comparisons to other brands, operational and maintenance manuals. Normal courier would take between 1 to weeks to deliver and also be expensive, while the quantity would be limited. With e-mail attachments in Adobe Acrobat form, IPSH can printout the catalogues indefinitely.

For the sales staff also it has become more convenient as all the details of their products can be burned into a CD-ROM and with this they can bring along a notebook PC and show the catalogues on the PC. In the PC also the sales people can also show picture files saved of any sites that are remote from the prospective customer. If the customer is far away, sales personnel can e-mail to the customer first and when the customer has gained some knowledge of what he has in mind, that later the sales staff can come over and explain in detail of what would meet the required specifications. Thus saving time, petrol and toll charges.

Remote capability has also enabled sales and service staff to reply to the customers and management faster even though they are outstation for long periods of time. A fair amount of time is spent outside of the office for both sales and service staff. Should a sales staff working in the East Coast gets a call from a customer in Johore requiring a quotation sent to him, he could call the office using the mobile phone or if after hours, send the details to the office where the sales coordinator in PJ would type it out on his behalf. The pricing of the equipment is normally kept in the office. Later, the sales coordinator gives a call to the sales personnel where as he has confirmed the price, specification and quantity only then would the quotation be faxed out to the customer in Johore.

Other than the e-mailing system, Notebook PC, CD-ROMs and handphones, the digital camera has also played its role as a technological factor. Upon reaching a site, it has been much easier to come up with a proper proposal for equipment that are to be installed at site. No more need to draw a layout, can printout the photo or save it to file for reference or even e-mail it to the supplier should there be any complication at site or in the service department. IPSH sends the photos for advice on installation if required as well as for warranty replacement should the equipment fail within the warranty period.

7. CONCLUSION / SUMMARY

By analyzing the previous communication factors that directly affect the organization of IPSH, it can be seen that the management has not been naïve in its practices that lead to the development and growth of IPSH all this while through clear and effective communication.

Any organization that wants to survive for as long as IPSH has for the past 16 years, and also to grow would have to weigh out the most appropriate practices in communicating and see for itself how these factors affect their organization as for each organization the actions may be the same but the outcome may not be as desired.

With such vital information the management will be able to anticipate what the future holds. It must identify what would threat the organization's existence. It should also have a clear vision in order to achieve its set aims and goals. Up till now it has strived and always anticipating change would be an essential ingredient for future success.

REFERENCES

Communication in Organizations, Rogers, Everett & Rogers, Rekha,

Macmillan Inc, 176

Management nd Edition, Gabriel, Vincent, Longman, 16

Management 7th Edition, Robbins, Stephen P.& Coulter, Mary,

Prentice Hall, 00

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Mollucicidal effects of kamias

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Abstract

The golden snail (Pomacea canaliculata) was introduced intentionally in Asia in 180 with the expectation that it could be cultivated as a high-protein food source for local consumption and as an export commodity for high-income countries. The taste was however not accepted by the masses and so the project was exterminated. Due to improper disposal, it invaded Philippine rice systems, where it dispersed through extensive irrigation networks. The golden snail feeds voraciously on young rice seedlings. This paper analyzes the molluscicidal effect of kamias leaf extract. The main purpose of the production of such pesticide is to create low-costing and efficient pesticides especially because our country is agricultural based. For more than a decade now, these snails have affected the country's rice harvests by up to 60% loss. The project produces an efficient pesticede, efficient in terms of low-costing and effectively eliminates such pests. So, here comes our Kamias leaf extract, a very economical and cheap pesticide and very abundant in the Philippines, Natural and non-toxic to the environment. The kamias leaf extract pesticide could be the revolutionary product of the country in agricultural innovation.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Do my essay on mollucicidal effects of kamias CHEAP !

Background of the study 05

Statement of the problem 08

Hypothesis 0

Objectives 10

Significance 11

Scope and limitations of the Study 1

Inclusive Dates and Places 1

Definition of terms 14

Survey of related Literature and Studies 15

Methodology

Materials 1

Procedure 1

Data and Results

Tables 4

Analysis of Data 7

Conclusion 8

Recommendations

Bibliography 0

Acknowledgements

I. Introduction

Background of the Study

The golden snail is indigenous to South America and was first introduced into Asia in 17-180. It was introduced intentionally to the region with the expectation that it could be cultivated as a high-protein food source for domestic consumption and as an export commodity for industrialized countries, where there has long been a cultivated taste for escargot. One of the most alluring features of the snail entrepreneurs and one of the most dreaded features for ecologists is that it has a voracious appetite and breeds extremely rapid. As a result, vast quantities of large snails (up to the size of an apple, and hence its American name, golden apple snail) can be produced for market within irrelatively short time period, with low investment costs in terms of initial snail inputs. Potential financial returns to production are therefore substantial in the short run, provided that a viable market exists for the golden snail and that other inputs, particularly an abundance of soft, leafy vegetation and a constant fresh water supply, are available at relatively low prices. Because of its easy maintenance and fast breeding, the snail was referred to as a "golden miracle snail" at the time of its introduction.

The snail was identified first in Guadeloupe, Brazil, but is thought to have originated from the swampy regions in the catchments of the Paranga River in Paraguay. Populations of the golden snail have also been abundant in coastal rise-growing areas of Surinam, where they became a major pest when large-scale irrigated rice production began in the 150's. Given the history of the golden apple snail as a major pest in irrigated rice in Surinam, it is surprising that it was intentionally introducedeven under controlled conditions into Asian countries.

A combination of low market value and negligencepresumably correlatedsoon resulted in the release and escape of the golden snail into irrigation ditches and public waterways throughout the regions in which they were introduced. It can only be surmised that entrepreneurs spreading the snail throughout Asia where myopic, deceptive or simply ignorant of the market. A number of studies report that the market value for the snail dropped precipitously soon after its introduction, because industrialized countries maintained stringent health regulations that largely precluded its importation, and because Asian consumers did not like its taste. Despite its high protein content, even many low-income farmers in Asia have refused to eat the snail.

Initially the golden apple snail was smuggled illegally into Taiwan. From Taiwan, it was brought into Japan by entrepreneurs in 181 and was then introduced officially into the Philippines in 18, where it was endorsed by the department of Agriculture as a rural "livelihood" project. Later in the 180's, it was introduced into China, South Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Recent reports indicate that it was also introduced in Laos and Papua New Guinea in the early 10's.

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Statement of the Problem

Our country, the Philippines, is in grave danger of starvation and greater agricultural breakdown because of the invincible population of the pest. Golden kuhol, The snail that eats rice seedlings and destroys the adult rice plant has been one of the major pests. The Filipino farmer thought before that it is the best way to have a better livelihood and the key to their success from making their life better is the golden snail due to its fast reproduction and high protein content. The Department of Agriculture introduced it for thinking that it would be a good source of agricultural economy and a controlled investment. Unfortunately, the plan to make the farmers rise from poverty only became a deeper problem. Now, the people are thinking of ways and alternatives on decreasing this disaster. Organic, inorganic, expensive and cheap pesticides made their way to stop this but none of them were the best to fit the Filipino farmer's pockets and expectations, effectively. Made from what is the alternative pesticide that is cheap, economical, easy to use, very abundant, non-toxic to humans, and environment-friendly.

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Hypothesis

The Kamias leaf extract, as a molluscicidal will be effective although will not yield a 100% mortality rate due to the coarseness of the process. Because of its natural property, its shelf life will be short unless refrigerated.

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Objectives

· to produce an effective pesticide

· to produce a natural pesticide

· to produce a low-cost pesticide

· to give a comparison between the pesticide made from nnkamias leaf extract and other methods of exterminating xxmollusks

· to give a theory based on what chemical exhibit

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Significance of the Study

The success of the study will open new doors to agricultural innovation. There will be a sudden change in the agricultural industry that may affect economic stability and economic growth. The common Filipino farmer will have a low budgeted high outcome harvest. The result of this will solve the problem of malnutrition in the Philippines which will cause for the concentration on the education and so on and so forth.

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Scope and Limitations

The paper aims to produce a pesticide that can efficiently eliminate mollusks specifically the golden snail of species name Pomacea canaliculata. The pesticide should not manipulate the normal growth of plants. The substances that will be used to create such pesticide should be abundant and of course, and cheap, so that it may be applicable to the typical Filipino farmers and agriculturists. The paper does not include of the utilization of chemicals that exhibit the moluscicidal effect of kamias leaf extract due to the lack of time and financial budget although a theory will be given based from other natural molluscicides. The project also displays the effectivity of the pesticide passing the boiling process and the blending process.

Inclusive Dates and Places

Dates Places Work Done

December 7, 001, Friday, 400 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Collecting of Kamias leaves

December 7, 001, Friday, 00 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Production of Solutions then refrigeration

December 8, 001, Saturday, 800 a.m. Nepa Q-mart EDSA Acquiring of golden snails

December 8, 001,Saturday, 845 a.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Cultivation period

December 8, 001, Saturday, 1000 a.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Testing of Solutions

December 8, 001, Saturday, 1000 p.m. Teacher's Village, Diliman, Q.C. Collecting of results

Definition of Terms

Escargot native vietnamese delicasy made from golden snails

Hatchability chances of hatching

Molluscicidal intentional killing of mollusks

Monsoon a wind that blows along the Asiatic coast of the dddddddddddpacific

Mortality the number of deaths in a population during a zzzzzzzzzzzzzzspecified time

Myopic lack of insight or good judgement

Paddy a field in which rice is grown

II. Survey of Review of Related Literature and Studies

In hindsight, it seems evident that if the potential risks of snail infestation in irrigated rice had been weighed against the expected economic returns of snail cultivation, the golden apple snail would not have been introduced into Asia. Accurate marketing information about the snail was clearly absent, and the introduction apparently were made without analysis of the ecological dynamics of the snail and it's potential to invade flooded rice system. A better understanding of the probability of invasion and possible extent of damage from the invasion surely would have signaled the need for strict quarantine restriction throughout the region.

A successful invasion by any exotic species depends on both the vulnerability of the ecosystem to invasions and the characteristics of the invader as defined by its population dynamics and dispersal activity. Like most invasions of exotic species, the golden apple snail invasion occurred in a human altered and simplified ecosystem, with a lower number of species and predator-prey relationships than a natural, undisturbed ecosystem. Its main competitor, the native "kuhol" snail, is closely related, and therefore the natural biological control agents for snails in this system have been effective at controlling the exotic golden apple snail. The native regions of the golden snail in South America, characterized by coastal swamp area, are remarkably similar to wet rice ecosystem in Asia. The latter have thus provided a suitable environment for the golden apple snail's establishment.

Additional characteristics of successful invaders are that they often have high reproductive output, short juvenile periods, and high rates of dispersal. Sexual maturity is attained in 60-0 days after hatching, at which time the females begin laying eggs. Females lay about 0 eggs in a bright pink egg mass on rice plants, the walls of irrigation canals, and fences at any given time. A female typically produces between 400 and 8700 eggs per year, with hatchability of 7 to 0% depending on predator populations and human controls. Mating occurs at any time of the day among crowded plants and in all seasons of the year as long as there is a continuous supply of water. The golden snail reproduces about ten times faster than the native snail in Asian rice systems.

Successful invaders are dispersed rapidly by water, wind, or human activity, and tend to be resilient to changing climatic conditions. The golden snail is a fresh water snail, but it can also lead an amphibious life in the mud when the water recedes. The snail typically buries itself in moist mud and digs deeper into the ground as the dry season goes on. It can live dormant in the mud for 6-8 months, and then starts feeding again within minutes to hours once the soil is flooded. Given the monsoon patterns of Asia, the snail has a good chance of survival based on climatic conditions alone. It is most abundant in flood-prone areas and regions with poor water control, but it persistently reappears in high productivity irrigated areas where dispersal through canals is high.

The high correlation between characteristics of a successful invader based on ecological principles and characteristics of the golden snail in Asian rice systems indicate that the invasion of the snail could and should have been predicted. Indeed, the probability of invasion might have been estimated at well over 50% prior to the introduction. In hindsight, the probability of invasion was more in the order of 0%, given that virtually all reported introductions of the golden snail into the rice ecosystems have resulted in invasions.

The successful establishment and invasion of the golden snail in irrigated rice systems in many parts of Asia have led to significant economic damage. Farmers in the infested areas are faced with the options of paying additional costs to control the spread of snails, replanting damaged areas of paddy, or ignoring the problem altogether at the risk of potentially large yield losses. Yield lost is a function of the density and average size of snails in the paddy, as well as the age of the crop. Experimental studies showed that a density of 1 snail per meter squared of paddy can reducer the crop stand by roughly 0%, where as a density of 8 snails per meter squared can reduce the stand by over 0%. Experimental data also show that damage to rice in fields with large snails (over 5 cm.) Is about times greater than damage in the fields with small snails (under cm.).

Rice seedlings are most vulnerable to golden snails up to weeks after they have been transplanted or up to 4 weeks after they have been direct seeded. Direct-seeded rice suffers significantly more damage than transplanted rice, because golden snails consume greater amounts of the younger, more succulent, plants. Experimental data presented by Morallo-Rehesus et.al. Show that snail damage in uncontrolled fields can be as high as 100% for rice seedlings in the germinating stage, as opposed to 0% on average in the transplanting stage. Where snail infestations are severe, replanting can cost twice as much or more per hectare than the initial savings earned by direct seeding as opposed to transplanting. This point is of special significance because the newest rice varieties are being developed for Asia are much more likely to be direct seeded rather than transplanted.

Although molluscicides and insecticides are used widely in

The Philippines, Japan, and Taiwan to control golden snail infestation, several other control measures are available to farmers. The most effective forms of population control for the snails are handpicking, pasturing ducks in the paddy, and careful water control that includes the occasional drainage of fields and maintenance of water levels below one centimeter. Irrigation control is difficult to quantify, but the success rate for drainage can be 80 % or more in the dry season. In the monsoon season, farmers only have limited control over water levels paddy fields.

The extent to which each of these alternative control measure are used in the Philippines and other Asian rice growing countries depends on prices and institutions that govern labor costs, land holdings, duck markets, pesticide use and irrigations systems.

Literature Cited

1. Elton, C. 158. The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,

. Pimentel, D. 186. Biological invasions of plants and animals in agriculture amd forestry Ecol Stud. 58,14-16.

. Heywood, V. 18. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants In Biological Invasions A Global Perspective. Drake, J. A., Mooney, H. A., di Castro, E, Groves, R. H., Kruger, E J., Rejmamek, M., and Williamson, M. (eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester,

pp. 1-60.

4. Howarth, F. G. ;1. Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Ann. Rev Entomol 6, 485-50.

5. Madamba, C. and Camaya, E. 187. The golden snail boon or bane. Proceedings of the 18th Anniversary and Annual Convention of the Pest Control Council of the Philippines 1. Davao City, Philippines, pp. 4-50.

6. Acosta, B. and Pullin, R. (eds). 18. Summary Report of a Workshop on the Environmental Impact of the Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.) on Rice Farming Systems in the Philippines. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

7. Morallo-Rejesus, B., Sayaboc A.C. and Joshi R.C. 188. The Distribution and Control of the Introduced Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.j in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Symposium on Introduction of Germplasm and Plant Quarantine Procedures. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (December 14-15).

III. Methodology

Materials

Materials Quantity Price

Golden kuhol ½ kilo Php 0.00

Kamias leaves N/A N/A

Blender 1 N/A

Containers N/A

Cauldron 1 N/A

Atomizer 1 N/A

Procedures

1. The snails were given a day to adjust in their new environment by feeding them gabi leaves and water regularly.

. The first set of 50 kamias leaves were blended together with 100ml of water and then sifted with filter paper for it to be appropriate for the atomizer.

. The second set of 50 kamias leaves were boiled with 10ml of water, water was added because of evaporation.

4. Then, the kuhol was transferred to the containers, 5 kuhols per container.

5. The blended kamias leaf extract was put in the atomizer and was used on 5 snails in the 1st container (set-up 1).

6. Then, the boiled kamias leaf extract was put in the atomizer and was sprayed to 5 specific snails into the nd container (set-up ).

7. Then, the rd container was filled with an ample amount of water, but with out any kamias extract.

8. The set-up was observed after 1 hours.

. Observations were made.

10. Touching and smelling for decomposition determined mortalities.

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IV. Data & Results

Set-up Description Observation

1 Blended Kamias leaf solution 80% mortality ratethe other 0% were still active yet bubbles were seen on the set-upthe solution turned dark amber in color

Boiled Kamias leaf solution 60% mortality ratewith pinkish eggsthe other 40% were still active yet bubbles were seen on the set-up the solution turned dark orange in color

Tap water 0 mortality rateAll were still activeThe water was still colorless but with particles

Control Technique Success Rate

Hand Picking(most laborious) 8%

Pasturing Ducks(most expensive) 8%

Kamias Leaf Extract 80%

The set-ups, (from left) 1. container with with out kamias leaf extract . container with blended & sifted kamias leaf extract . container with boiled kamias leaf extract.

The container with blended & sifted kamias leaf extract atfter 1 hours.

Thr container with boiled kamias leaf extract after 1 hours.

The container with no kamias leaf extract after 1 hours

V. Analysis and Discussion

The results confirmed that there is lethal action of kamias leaf extract whose effect can be compared to that of a pesticide specifically with chemicals of saponin. However. We may infer that both the extract and pesticide are not fully capable of contributing to eradicate snails. Their defensive behavior such as the escape to the water container contribute to them to be unaffected by molluscicidal substances returning soon to the former infestation.

Despite the fact that the blended Kamias leaf extract yields an 80% mortality rate, surveys have confirmed that the snails will invariably re-infest the plantation which will greatly contribute to the production of such pesticide created due to its cheapness and abundance.

Because of that the kamias leaf extract is fully natural, it is based on theory that it will not affect the external ecosystem of the plant and the plant's natural growth although shelf life will be a problem.

VI. Conclusion

After weeks of research, the following conclusions were reached (1) the kamias leaves are extractable; () kamias leaf extract have molluscicidal properties; () the extracts have significantly weaker molluscicidal power than the commercial pesticide; and (4) the extracts obtained have short shelf life, unless refrigerated.

VII. Recommendation

1. This study may be replicated using other plants that could be tested for their molluscicidal activity.

. An increase or decrease in the concentration and time used in this research may be done to further know their effect in snails.

. In continuing the study for their molluscicidal potential using the same plants, the researcher recommends the extraction of pure saponin from the plants to know if it has the same effect as the crude extract used in this study.

4. In addition, screening for toxicity of the same plants for its effect on other organisms like fishes, is encouraged.

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VIII. Bibliography

1. I. Elton, C. 158. The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,

. Pimentel, D. 186. Biological invasions of plants and animals in agriculture amd forestry Ecol. Stud. 58,14-16.

. Heywood, V. 18. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants In Biological Invasions A Global Perspective. Drake, J. A., Mooney, H. A., di Castro, E, Groves, R. H., Kruger, E J., Rejmamek, M., and Williamson, M. (eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 1-60.

4. Howarth, F. G. ;1. Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Ann. Rev Entomol 6, 485-50.

5. Harris, P. 10 Environmental impact of introduced biological control agents. In Critical issues in Biological Control. Mackauer, M., Ehler, L. E., and Roland, J. (eds). Intercept Publishers, Andover, England, pp. 8-00.

6. Pomacea canaliculata is synonymous with Ampullaria canaliculata and Ampullarius canaliculata, and is commonly referred to as Lamarck.

7. Madamba, C. and Camaya, E. 187. The golden snail boon or bane. Proceedings of the 18th Anniversary and Annual Convention of the Pest Control Council of the Philippines 1. Davao City, Philippines, pp. 4-50.

8 Acosta, B. and Pullin, R. (eds). 18. Summary Report of a Workshop on the Environmental Impact of the Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.) on Rice Farming Systems in the Philippines. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

. Morallo-Rejesus, B., Sayaboc A.C. and Joshi R.C. 188. The Distribution and Control of the Introduced Golden Snail (Pomacea sp.j in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Symposium on Introduction of Germplasm and Plant Quarantine Procedures. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (December 14-15).

10. DOA Philippines/FAO (Department of Agriculture in the Philippines and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). 18. Integrated Golden Kuhol Management. Handbook prepared for Filipino farmers and extension workers. Manila, Philippines.

11. Cruz, R. 187. Golden snail infest rice and corn fields in six towns. Manila J. 4, p. 4.

1. Buendia, L.M. 188. The golden apple snail A rice menace. Monitor 16, 6.

1. Santos, E.J. 187. Golden apple snail Food and farm pest. Agribusiness Weekly 1. Manila, Philippines, pp. 14-15.

14. Revilla, I.M., Estoy, G.E and Salazar, EV.. 11. State of Golden Kuhol Infestation in Selected Rice Farming Villages of Nueva Ecija. Paper presented at the Workshop on Golden Kuhol Management in the Philippines. PhilRice. Munoz. Nueva Ecija, Philippines (7-1 October).

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Great Expectations

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Great Expectations By Charles Dickens

Stephanie Felix

Summary

Chapter 1

Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Great Expectations

The main character, Philip Pirrip, is called Pip. He is an orphan who lives in the marsh country in England with his older sister, who is married to the blacksmith Joe. One night when Pip is in the churchyard where his parents are buried, he is surprised by a man dressed in rags with chains on his legs. The man is an escaped convict. The convict asks Pip some questions then demands that Pip bring him food and a file to cut off the chains.

Chapter

Pip is afraid not to do what the convict wants, so he goes to his sister's house, gets some bread and butter and puts it is one leg of his pants, but he can't leave right away because it is Christmas Eve. Pip calls his sister Mrs. Joe, and she is not very nice to him, but Joe the blacksmith is kind. Early the next morning, Pip goes to the pantry and gets some food for the convict then gets a file from Joe's blacksmith shop and goes back to find the convict.

Chapter

While looking for the convict, Pip finds a different convict who hits him and runs off. Pip then finds the first convict gives him the food and is kind to him. The convict gets upset when Pip tells him about the other convict he ran into. Pip then goes back home.

Chapter 4

When he gets home Pip feels guilty for helping the convict. He thinks the police will be waiting for him when he gets home, but they aren't. Later, during the Christmas dinner, the police come to Joe's house and Pip is afraid.

Chapter 5

Pip thinks the police are after him, but they just want Joe to fix some handcuffs. The police tell Pip and Joe that they are searching for two escaped convicts, and the Pip and Joe agree to help hunt for the convicts. Pip feels sort of worried about the convict he helped. Later they find the two convicts fighting with each other in the marsh. The convicts are captured and the one Pip helped covers for Pip by saying he stole the food and file by himself. The convicts are then taken to a prison ship.

Chapter 6

Joe then carries Pip home, and they finish their Christmas dinner. Pip then goes to bed and Joe tells about catching the convicts. Pip continues to feel guilty about helping the convict and for not telling Joe about it.

Chapter 7

For a while after the incident with the convict, Pip is still feeling guilty but is involved in learning to read and write. Joe is illiterate and is impressed by Pip's writing and while they were talking Uncle Pumblechook comes in and tells Pip the he has arranged for Pip to go play at Miss Havisham's house. Miss Havisham is a rich old lady who lives in the area. Mrs. Joe and Uncle Pumblechook say this will make Pips fortune, and they send him home with Uncle Pumblechook before he goes to Miss Havishams.

Chapter 8

Pip stays with Uncle Pumblechook and at 1000am the next day goes to Miss Havishams house. The gate is locked, and a very pretty girl named Estella opens it. She is rude to Uncle Pumblechook and he leave when Pip goes inside. She leads him through the large house to Miss Havishams room. Miss Havisham is a thin old woman wearing a faded old wedding dress. Her room is full of clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine. Estella leaves, and Miss Havisham tells Pip to play, but Pip is sort of nervous and hesitates so Miss Havisham tells him to call Estella. Estella returns, and plays cards with Pip, but she is rude and criticizes Pip for being low class and having poor manners. Miss Havisham is amused that Pip seems to be infatuated with Estella.

Chapter

When Pip gets home, he lies about his experience at Miss Havishams House. He makes up a story about Estella feeding him cake and dogs fighting over a veal cutlet in a silver basket. He feels guilty about lying to Joe and tells him the truth later. Joe is surprised that Pip lied, and tells him that he will succeed only if he takes an honest path. Pip is determined to remember Joes words, but he imagines that Estella would find Joe very common.

Chapter 10

Pip begins to think about improving himself and his social standing and decides to get help form his sensible friend Biddy. Later when Pip goes to the pub to get Joe, he sees a strange man stirring his drink with a file like the one he gave the convict. When they were leaving the pub, the stranger gave Pip two pounds, which Pip later gave to his sister. This causes Pip to worry that someone will find out that he helped the convict.

Chapter 11

Not long after seeing the man in the pub, Pip is goes back to Miss Havishams, where he meets some people visiting her on her birthday. He meets a burly man of an exceedingly dark complexion on the stairs, who gives him a hard time. Pip then plays cards with Estella again. After that he goes down to the garden where he meets a pale young gentleman. The pale young gentleman asks Pip to fight and they fight. Pip knocks the young gentleman down, and Estella tells him he can kiss her, so Pip kisses her on the cheek. Pip goes home, and is upset that Estella looks down on him.

Chapter 1

Pip is afraid he will be in trouble for fighting, but the fight is not mentioned the next time he goes to Miss Havishams. Pip visits Miss Havishams regularly for the next few months. He pushes Miss Havisham around in her wheelchair, begins to think that Miss Havisham intends to help him become a well to do gentleman. He is still impressed with Estella and doesn't realize that Miss Havisham is encouraging Estella to torment him. Pip starts to grow apart from his family and becomes closer to Biddy than Joe. Pip is beginning to feel ashamed of Joe for being so common. Later, when Miss Havisham offers to help Pip with the indenture that would make Pip Joes apprentice, and he is very upset because he finally realizes she really never intended to make him a gentleman.

Chapter 1

When Joe goes to Miss Havishams house to complete Pips apprenticeship papers; he is completely out of place and Estella laughs at him and Pip. Miss Havisham gives Pip twenty-five pounds, and Pip and Joe go to the Town Hall to finalize the apprenticeship. They then go out to dinner to celebrate, but Pip is upset and disappointed with his life.

Chapter 14

Pip starts working in Joes blacksmith shop and begins to grow up. He hates being Joes apprentice, but out of consideration for Joe, he keeps his feelings to himself. As time goes on Pip thinks about Estella and wishes he was still going to Miss Havishams.

Chapter 15

Pip tried to continue to improve himself and expand his knowledge, and even tried to teach Joe to read. One day, Pip mentioned to Joe that he thought he should visit Miss Havisham again, but Joe told him it wasn't a good idea. However, Pip decided he would do what he wanted.

Joes helper, Orlick, treated Pip terribly and made his life miserable. Once when Pip was very young, Orlick told him that the devil lived in a corner of the forge. One day Pip's sister, Mrs. Joe, got in a fight with Orlick and Joe had to come to her aide and beat Orlick in the fight.

Pip went to Miss Havisham's but was disappointed to find out that Estella had been sent abroad. He then went to Pumblechooks for the evening, and on the way home, he saw Orlick in the shadows and heard guns fire from the prison ships. When Pip got home, he found out that Mrs. Joe has been attacked and would never be the same and was now an invalid.

Chapter 16

Pip felt really guilty when he learned that convicts with leg irons that had been filed through were suspected of the attack on his sister. The identity of the attacker is not discovered. Mrs. Joe is now unable to talk, but draws the letter T over and over. Pip thinks the "T" represents a hammer figures she is referring to Orlick. Orlick is brought to Mrs. Joe. Pip thinks she will identify him as her attacker, but she doesn't. Instead she seems friendly.

Chapter 17

Biddy came to help take care of Mrs. Joe. Pip went Miss Havisham's again, but didn't like it much without Estella. Pip talks to Biddy about his dissatisfaction with the things in his life. Pip is sort of attracted to Biddy, but he only tells her about his secret love for Estella. Biddy tells him he shouldn't bother with Estella. Pip then gets mad at her, but he still gets annoyed when Orlick shows interest in her.

Chapter 18

One night at the pub a strange man begins asking questions about a murder case Wopsle was reading about aloud from the newspaper. Pip recognizes him as the man he met on the stairs at Miss Havishams. Finally the man says he is a lawyer named Jaggers. Then he goes home with Pip and Joe where he explains that Pip is about to inherit fortune. He then says Pip's education as a gentleman is to begin immediately in London. Jaggers tells Pip that the person who is leaving him the fortune wants to remain secret. Pip can never be told the name of his benefactor.

Pip assumes that his benefactor is Miss Havisham, since he first met Jaggers at her house, and his new tutor will be Matthew Pocket, Miss Havishams cousin. Joe is sad that Pip will be leaving, but he refuses to accept money from Jaggerss. Biddy is also very sad. Pip becomes snobbish and thinks he is too good for them, when he sees Joe and Biddy together he feels sorry he is leaving them.

Chapter 1

The next day Pip starting to become anxious to go to London, and wasn't too concerned about Joe and Biddy. He tried to comfort Joe, but his heart wasn't in it, and Biddy scolded him for it. Pip visited Miss Havisham one last time, and since she knew so much about what had happened to him, he certain that Miss Havisham was his anonymous benefactor. After Pip finally leaves for London he regrets having behaved so badly toward the people who loved him most.

Chapter 0

When Pip gets to London he is surprised by the stench and the congestion. Jaggers seems to be important and lots of people are waiting to see him. Pip meets Jaggerss clerk, Wemmick.

Chapter 1

Wemmick introduces Pip to Herbert Pocket, who is the son of Pips new tutor. Pip is to spend the night with Herbert. The soon become friends. Herbert hopes to become a shipping merchant. They soon realize that Herbert was the pale young gentleman that Pip fought with at Miss Havisham's.

Chapter

Pip wants Herbert to help him become a gentleman, and so they agree to live together. Herbert corrects Pips table manners, gives him the nickname Handel. Herbert tells Pip all about Miss Havisham. When Miss Havisham was young, her family fortune was squandered by her half brother, and she fell in love with a man from a lower social class. They planned to get married and he convinced her to buy her half brothers share of the family brewery at an inflated price. Then on their wedding day, the man stood her up. He sent her a note which Miss Havisham received at twenty minutes to nine, the time that she stopped all her clocks. It appeared that Miss Havishams fianc had conspired with her half brother and that they split the money from the brewery sale. Later, Miss Havisham adopted Estella, but Herbert did not know the details.

Chapter

The next day, Pip went to the Royal Exchange, then went to Matthew Pockets house to be tutored and to have dinner. The Pockets home was very busy. Matthew was absentminded but kind, and his wife was ambitious but not from the upper class. The children were being raised by the nurse. Pip had two fellow students. Bentley Drummle was a future baronet, and was unpleasant. The other student was a young man named Startop who was sort of delicate.

Chapter 4

Pip returns to Jaggerss office and becomes friends with Wemmick, who invites him to dinner. Pip sees Jaggers in court and is impressed with the power of his speeches.

Chapter 5

Pip gets to know his fellow students and the Pockets and goes to dinner at both Wemmicks and Jaggerss. The Wemmick house is like something out of a dream. Pip thinks that Wemmick's personality changes when he gets home. At home he is happy and cheerful, at work he is all business.

Chapter 6

Jaggerss house is rather depressing. He only has a dreary housekeeper, namedMolly. Pips fellow students go to dinner at Jaggerss with Pip, and Pip and Drummle argue over a loan Drummle borrowed from Startop. Jaggers warns Pip that he should stay away from Drummle.

Chapter 7

When Joe visits Pip in London, Pip thinks Joe will disapprove of his lifestyle and Drummle will look down on him because of Joe. Joes visit doesn't go too well. Joe tells Pip the news from home, but Pip isn't very interested until Joe says that Estella has returned and wants to see Pip. This improves Pip's attitude, but Joe then.

Chapter 8

Pip goes home to apologize to Joe and see Estella if he can. On the trip Pip has to share the coach with two convicts. One of them the stranger who gave Pip money in the pub. The convict does not recognize Pip but, Pip overhears him explaining that the convict Pip helped long ago asked him to give the money to Pip. Pip is upset when he hears this and gets off the coach. When Pip gets to his hotel, he finds out that Pumblechook is taking credit for his good fortune.

Chapter

The next day Pip goes to Miss Havishams when he finds Orlick, who is now Miss Havishams porter. When he sees Estella, he is dazzeled by her beauty. Despite his improved status, Pip feels inadequate around her. Miss Havisham gives Pip a hard time. Pip walks with Estella in the garden, but she is indifferent. Back in the house, he finds Jaggers and is uncomfortable.

Chapter 0

Pip tells Jaggers about Orlicks history, and Jaggers fires him. Pip is then teased by the tailors apprentice. Pip is down when he returns to London. Herbert tries to cheer him up and also tells him that Miss Havisham does not intend for him to marry Estella. Herbert says he is also in love and, his fiance is named Clara, but he is too poor to get married.

Chapter 1

Pip and Herbert go to a theater, where Wopsle plays Hamlet. Pip takes Wopsle to dinner after the play, but he is still in a bad mood.

Chapter

Estella sends Pip a note telling him to meet her in London at a train station. Pip arrives very early and runs into Wemmick. Wemmick takes Pip on a tour of Newgate Prison. Pip feels uncomfortable, but Wemmick is relaxed. He introduces Pip to a man who has been sentenced to death by hanging.

Chapter

Pip meets Estella and she is arrogant toward him, but he is excited because he feels they are destined to be married. Pip escorts Estella to the house where she is staying, and returns to the Pockets house.

Chapter 4

Pip feels guilty about the way he has treated Joe and Biddy, and thinks he has been a bad influence on Herbert. The two men are reviewing their debts when a letter arrives with the news that Mrs. Joe has died.

Chapter 5

Pip is surprised at who upset and sad he is about his sisters death. He goes home for the funeral. He tries to improve his relationship with Joe and Biddy. Biddy is not sure about Pip's actions. The next day Pip says goodbye to them and walks into the mist.

Chapter 6

Pip finally turns twenty-one, which means he is an adult and will get regular income directly from his fortune rather than having to go to Jaggers for his money. Pip is excited, because he hopes that Jaggers can now tell him who his benefactor is. In spite of Herberts warning, Pip is certain that it is Miss Havisham and that she intends for him to marry Estella. When Pip talks to Jaggers, Jaggers is strictly business and only tells Pip that his income will be five hundred pounds a year and Jaggers refuses to take responsibility for anything else. For some strange reason, this conversation reminds Pip of his meeting with the convict in the graveyard so long ago. Pip invites Jaggers to him at his birthday dinner, but Jaggerss presence makes the evening a little depressing for Pip and Herbert.

Chapter 7

When he gets his income, Pip wants to help Herbert get into the merchant business. Pip asks Wemmick for advice. Wemmick first tells Pip not to help Herbert, but later, at the Castle Wemmick happily gives Pip the opposite advice and agrees to help Pip with it. They find a merchant willing to take in a partner, and Pip buys Herbert the partnership. Pip does this anonymously, so then Herbert, like Pip, does not know his benefactor.

Chapter 8

Pip spends a lot of time with Estella in London at the house of Mrs. Brandley where Estella is staying, but Estella doesn't consider him a serious suitor. Instead he goes everywhere with Estella watching her treat her other suitors rudely while she mostly ignores him. He doesn't understand why Miss Havisham doesn't announce their engagement. Pip and Estella visit Miss Havisham, and for the first time, Pip friction between Miss Havisham and Estella Miss Havisham encorages Estella on to break mens hearts, but Estella is cold toward Miss Havisham. Pip then learns that Drummle is courting Estella. Pip is upset and asks Estella about it, but she doesn't take seriously. She tells Pip he is the only suitor she doesnt try to deceive and entrap. This upsets Pip even more.

Chapter

Some time later when Pip is twenty-three, he hears footsteps on his stairs. An old sailor comes into Pips room. Pip isn't very friendly to him until he recognizes him. It is Pips convict, from the cemetery and the marsh when Pip was a boy. Pip is shocked as he learns the truth. The convict eventually went to Australia, where he made a huge fortune. Because of Pips kindness to him on the marsh, the man arranged to use his wealth to help Pip become a gentleman. The convict, not Miss Havisham, was Pips secret benefactor. Pip realized he was not meant to marry Estella at all.

Pip then learns that the convict is still running from the law, and if he is caught, he could be put to death. Pip realizes that though the convicts story has been a shock and a big let down, he has a duty to help his benefactor. Pip feeds the man and lets him stay for the night, since Herbert is away. Pip is very nervous about what has happen and when looks in on the convict, he sees a pistol on his pillow. The next day he awake up early to stormy weather.

Chapter 40

Pip trips over a man on his staircase. He runs for the watchman, but when they return the man is gone. Pip then talks to the convict, who says his name is Abel Magwitch. Pip decides it wuld be safer to call Magwitch "Uncle Provis," an name Magwitch made up on the trip from Australia to England. Pip goes to Jaggers to confirm Magwitchs story. Magwitch stays at Pip's apartment and embarrasses Pip with his bad manners and rough speech.

Chapter 41

After a few days Herbert returns home. Magwitch leaves, and Herbert and Pip discuss what has happened. They decide that Pip should no longer take Magwitchs money. They also decide Pip should take Magwitch out of the country where he will be safe.

Chapter 4

The next day, Magwitch tells Pip and Herbert his story. He was an orphan and lived a life of crime out of desperation. As a young man, he met a gentleman criminal named Compeyson and fell under his influence. Compeyson had driven another accomplice, Arthur, into alcoholism and madness. Magwitch said that Arthur was driven mad by the memory of a wealthy woman he and Compeyson had victimized. He said that when he and Compeyson were caught, Compeyson turned agaist him, using his gentlemans manners to obtain a light sentence. Magwitch wanted revenge, and Compeyson was the man Pip saw him fighting with that night on the marsh.

At that point, Herbert passed Pip a note. The note says that Arthur was Miss Havishams half brother and Compeyson was the man who stood her up on their wedding day.

Chapter 4

Pip is ashamed that his social status came from such a rough, low class man. Pip decides that he must leave Estella forever. After an unpleasant run in with Drummle at the inn, Pip goes to Miss Havisham's to see Miss Havisham and Estella one last time.

Chapter 44

Miss Havisham admits that she allowed Pip to think she was his benefactor, and then she agrees to provide help to Herbert since Pip can no longer use his money. Pip finally tells Estella he loves her, but she coldly says that she has decided to marry Drummle. Pip is so upset that he walks all the way back to London. As he gets close to home he gets a note from Wemmick, tht says dont go home.

Chapter 45

Pip is afraid to go home, so he spends a night at an inn. The next day Wemmick tells Pip that he found out from Jaggerss office that Compeyson was looking for Magwitch. Wemmick says that Herbert took Magwitch to Claras house, so Pip leaves to go there.

Chapter 46

At Clara's house Pip discovers that Claras father is a drunk and he is glad that he has helped Clara and Herbert get away from him. Pip finds Magwitch and is surprised that he is concerned about Magwitch's safety. Herbert and Pip talk about sneaking Magwitch out on the river. Pip even considers staying with Magwitch after their escape. Pip buys a rowboat and keeps an eye out for Compeyson.

Chapter 47

Pip is waiting to send Magwitch downriver. Despite Pip's improved feelings about Magwitch , he feels he must not spend any more of Magwitchs money, so he goes into debt. He figures Estella must have married Drummle by now, but he doesn't want to think about it. He is worried about Magwitch.

Pip went to the theater to relax, but Wopsle tells him that one of the convicts from the marsh was in the audience behind him. Pip now knows that Compeyson must be following him.

Chapter 48

Jaggers has Pip to dinner, and gives him a note from Miss Havisham. When Jaggerss housekeeper Molly comes in, Pip realizes that Molly is the person Estella resembles. He realizes that Molly must be Estellas mother. Pip questions Wemmick about Molly, and he learns that Molly was accused of killing a woman over her common-law husband and murdering her daughter to hurt him. Pip is sure that Estella is Molly's lost daughter.

Chapter 4

When Pip goes to see Miss Havisham, she feels guilty for having encouraged Estella to break his heart. Miss Havisham starts to cry and clings to Pips feet, begging him to forgive her. Pip is kind to her, but then goes for a walk in the garden. There, he has a feeling that Miss Havisham is dead. He looks up at her window just in time to see her go too near the fire and get caught in the flames. Pip rushes in to save her, and smothers the fire with the tablecloth. Miss Havisham lives, but is an invalid. Pip stays with her after the doctors leave, then the next morning, he leaves and returns to London.

Chapter 50

Pip was severely burned saving Miss Havisham. When Herbert changes Pip's bandages, they agree that they have both grown like Magwitch a little better. Herbert tells Pip the part of Magwitchs story that he originally left out, about the woman in his past. The story is the same as the story of Jaggerss housekeeper, Molly. Pip then figures out that Magwitch, was Mollys common-law husband and so he must be Estellas father.

Chapter 51

Pip is now determined to find out the rest of the story. Pip goes to see Jaggers and eventually manages get him to tell him what happened. the truth of Estellas parentage. Pip cannot convince Jaggers until he appeals to Wemmicks kinder side to help him. Jaggers is so happy to find that Wemmick has a kinder side that he confirms that Estella is Mollys daughter, though he didnt know about Magwitch.

Chapter 5

Pip leaves to finalize Herberts partnership and learns that Herbert is to be transferred to the Middle East. Herbert fantasizes about taking Clara to the land of the Arabian Nights.

Pip gets a message from Wemmick saying that they need to be ready to leave with Magwitch in two days. Pip then finds an anonymous threat against Uncle Provis, that orders him to secretly go to the marshes. Pip goes to the inn near his old home, and remebers how badly he has treated Joe since he became a gentleman. Pip regrets the loss of Joes friendship the most. That night, with his arm still injured from the fire, Pip goes the meeting on the marshes.

Please note that this sample paper on Great Expectations is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Great Expectations, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Great Expectations will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Stars

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Evolution and death of stars

Stars are balls of gas that shine or used to shine because of nuclear fusion in their cores. The most familiar star is the Sun. The nuclear fusion in stars produces a force that pushes the material in a star outward. However, the gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself pulls the material inward. A star can remain stable as long as the outward pressure and gravitational force balance. The properties of a star depend on its mass, its temperature, and its stage in evolution.

Astronomers study stars by measuring their brightness or, with more difficulty, their distances from Earth. They measure the "colour" of a starthe differences in the stars brightness from one part of the spectrum to anotherto determine its temperature. They also study the spectrum of a stars light to determine not only the temperature, but also the chemical makeup of the stars outer layers.

Many different types of stars exist. Some types of stars are really just different stages of a stars evolution. Some types are different because the stars formed with much more or much less mass than other stars, or because they formed close to other stars. The Sun is a type of star known as a main-sequence star. Eventually, main-sequence stars such as the Sun swell into giant stars and then evolve into tiny, dense, white dwarf stars. Main-sequence stars and giants have a role in the behavior of most variable stars and novas. A star much more massive than the Sun will become a supergiant star, and then explode as a supernova. A supernova may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole.

Write my Essay on stars for me

The H-R diagram compares the brightness of a star with its temperature. The diagonal line running from the upper left to the lower right is called the Main Sequence. Stars lying on the Main Sequence are blue when they are bright and red when they are dim. Stars in the upper right (called Red Giants) are very bright, but still appear red. Stars near the bottom (known as White Dwarfs) are white, but not very bright. This diagram was developed independently by Ejnar Hertzsprung, a Danish astronomer, and Henry Norris Russell, an American astronomer.

Russell independently worked out a way to graph basic properties of stars. On the horizontal axis of their

Main sequence stars, on an H-R diagram, the brightest stars are at the top and the hottest stars are at the left. Hertzsprung and Russell found that most stars fell on a diagonal line across the H-R diagram from upper left to lower right. This line is called the main sequence. The diagonal line of main-sequence stars indicates that temperature and brightness of these stars are directly related. The hotter a main-sequence star is, the brighter it is. The Sun is a main-sequence star, located in about the middle of the graph. More faint, cool stars exist than hot, bright ones, so the Sun is brighter and hotter than most of the stars in the universe.

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical physics no longer applies, and astronomers use Einsteins general theory of relativity to explain the behavior of light and matter under such strong gravitational forces. According to general relativity, space around the core becomes so warped that nothing can escape, creating a black hole. A star with a mass ten times the mass of the Sun would become a black hole if it were compressed to 0 km (60 mi) or less in diameter.

Astronomers have various ways of detecting black holes. When a black hole is in a binary system, matter from the companion star spirals into the black hole, forming a disk of gas around it. The disk becomes so hot that it gives off X rays that astronomers can detect from Earth. Astronomers use X-ray telescopes in space to find X-ray sources, and then they look for signs that an unseen object of more than about five times the mass of the Sun is causing gravitational tugs on a visible object. By 1 astronomers had found about a dozen potential black holes.

About the same time as Einsteins Theory of General Relativity came out (about 115), Karl Schwarzschild derived a system that describes the space time geometry of empty space surrounding any spherical mass. One of the more remarkable predictions of Schwarz child's geometry was that if a mass (M) were compressed inside a critical radius (rs) then its gravity would become so strong that not even light could escape. The Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon) rs of mass M are given in mathematical formula like so

rs= G M / c

G represents Newtons gravitational constant, and c being the speed of light.

By Ben Herries

Evolution and death of stars

Stars are balls of gas that shine or used to shine because of nuclear fusion in their cores. The most familiar star is the Sun. The nuclear fusion in stars produces a force that pushes the material in a star outward. However, the gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself pulls the material inward. A star can remain stable as long as the outward pressure and gravitational force balance. The properties of a star depend on its mass, its temperature, and its stage in evolution.

Astronomers study stars by measuring their brightness or, with more difficulty, their distances from Earth. They measure the "colour" of a starthe differences in the stars brightness from one part of the spectrum to anotherto determine its temperature. They also study the spectrum of a stars light to determine not only the temperature, but also the chemical makeup of the stars outer layers.

Many different types of stars exist. Some types of stars are really just different stages of a stars evolution. Some types are different because the stars formed with much more or much less mass than other stars, or because they formed close to other stars. The Sun is a type of star known as a main-sequence star. Eventually, main-sequence stars such as the Sun swell into giant stars and then evolve into tiny, dense, white dwarf stars. Main-sequence stars and giants have a role in the behavior of most variable stars and novas. A star much more massive than the Sun will become a supergiant star, and then explode as a supernova. A supernova may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole.

The H-R diagram compares the brightness of a star with its temperature. The diagonal line running from the upper left to the lower right is called the Main Sequence. Stars lying on the Main Sequence are blue when they are bright and red when they are dim. Stars in the upper right (called Red Giants) are very bright, but still appear red. Stars near the bottom (known as White Dwarfs) are white, but not very bright. This diagram was developed independently by Ejnar Hertzsprung, a Danish astronomer, and Henry Norris Russell, an American astronomer.

Russell independently worked out a way to graph basic properties of stars. On the horizontal axis of their

Main sequence stars, on an H-R diagram, the brightest stars are at the top and the hottest stars are at the left. Hertzsprung and Russell found that most stars fell on a diagonal line across the H-R diagram from upper left to lower right. This line is called the main sequence. The diagonal line of main-sequence stars indicates that temperature and brightness of these stars are directly related. The hotter a main-sequence star is, the brighter it is. The Sun is a main-sequence star, located in about the middle of the graph. More faint, cool stars exist than hot, bright ones, so the Sun is brighter and hotter than most of the stars in the universe.

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical physics no longer applies, and astronomers use Einsteins general theory of relativity to explain the behavior of light and matter under such strong gravitational forces. According to general relativity, space around the core becomes so warped that nothing can escape, creating a black hole. A star with a mass ten times the mass of the Sun would become a black hole if it were compressed to 0 km (60 mi) or less in diameter.

Astronomers have various ways of detecting black holes. When a black hole is in a binary system, matter from the companion star spirals into the black hole, forming a disk of gas around it. The disk becomes so hot that it gives off X rays that astronomers can detect from Earth. Astronomers use X-ray telescopes in space to find X-ray sources, and then they look for signs that an unseen object of more than about five times the mass of the Sun is causing gravitational tugs on a visible object. By 1 astronomers had found about a dozen potential black holes.

About the same time as Einsteins Theory of General Relativity came out (about 115), Karl Schwarzschild derived a system that describes the space time geometry of empty space surrounding any spherical mass. One of the more remarkable predictions of Schwarz child's geometry was that if a mass (M) were compressed inside a critical radius (rs) then its gravity would become so strong that not even light could escape. The Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon) rs of mass M are given in mathematical formula like so

rs= G M / c

G represents Newtons gravitational constant, and c being the speed of light.

By Ben Herries

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical

Please note that this sample paper on stars is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on stars, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on stars will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

Order your authentic assignment from cheap essay writing service and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!