Great Expectations

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Great Expectations By Charles Dickens

Stephanie Felix

Summary

Chapter 1

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The main character, Philip Pirrip, is called Pip. He is an orphan who lives in the marsh country in England with his older sister, who is married to the blacksmith Joe. One night when Pip is in the churchyard where his parents are buried, he is surprised by a man dressed in rags with chains on his legs. The man is an escaped convict. The convict asks Pip some questions then demands that Pip bring him food and a file to cut off the chains.

Chapter

Pip is afraid not to do what the convict wants, so he goes to his sister's house, gets some bread and butter and puts it is one leg of his pants, but he can't leave right away because it is Christmas Eve. Pip calls his sister Mrs. Joe, and she is not very nice to him, but Joe the blacksmith is kind. Early the next morning, Pip goes to the pantry and gets some food for the convict then gets a file from Joe's blacksmith shop and goes back to find the convict.

Chapter

While looking for the convict, Pip finds a different convict who hits him and runs off. Pip then finds the first convict gives him the food and is kind to him. The convict gets upset when Pip tells him about the other convict he ran into. Pip then goes back home.

Chapter 4

When he gets home Pip feels guilty for helping the convict. He thinks the police will be waiting for him when he gets home, but they aren't. Later, during the Christmas dinner, the police come to Joe's house and Pip is afraid.

Chapter 5

Pip thinks the police are after him, but they just want Joe to fix some handcuffs. The police tell Pip and Joe that they are searching for two escaped convicts, and the Pip and Joe agree to help hunt for the convicts. Pip feels sort of worried about the convict he helped. Later they find the two convicts fighting with each other in the marsh. The convicts are captured and the one Pip helped covers for Pip by saying he stole the food and file by himself. The convicts are then taken to a prison ship.

Chapter 6

Joe then carries Pip home, and they finish their Christmas dinner. Pip then goes to bed and Joe tells about catching the convicts. Pip continues to feel guilty about helping the convict and for not telling Joe about it.

Chapter 7

For a while after the incident with the convict, Pip is still feeling guilty but is involved in learning to read and write. Joe is illiterate and is impressed by Pip's writing and while they were talking Uncle Pumblechook comes in and tells Pip the he has arranged for Pip to go play at Miss Havisham's house. Miss Havisham is a rich old lady who lives in the area. Mrs. Joe and Uncle Pumblechook say this will make Pips fortune, and they send him home with Uncle Pumblechook before he goes to Miss Havishams.

Chapter 8

Pip stays with Uncle Pumblechook and at 1000am the next day goes to Miss Havishams house. The gate is locked, and a very pretty girl named Estella opens it. She is rude to Uncle Pumblechook and he leave when Pip goes inside. She leads him through the large house to Miss Havishams room. Miss Havisham is a thin old woman wearing a faded old wedding dress. Her room is full of clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine. Estella leaves, and Miss Havisham tells Pip to play, but Pip is sort of nervous and hesitates so Miss Havisham tells him to call Estella. Estella returns, and plays cards with Pip, but she is rude and criticizes Pip for being low class and having poor manners. Miss Havisham is amused that Pip seems to be infatuated with Estella.

Chapter

When Pip gets home, he lies about his experience at Miss Havishams House. He makes up a story about Estella feeding him cake and dogs fighting over a veal cutlet in a silver basket. He feels guilty about lying to Joe and tells him the truth later. Joe is surprised that Pip lied, and tells him that he will succeed only if he takes an honest path. Pip is determined to remember Joes words, but he imagines that Estella would find Joe very common.

Chapter 10

Pip begins to think about improving himself and his social standing and decides to get help form his sensible friend Biddy. Later when Pip goes to the pub to get Joe, he sees a strange man stirring his drink with a file like the one he gave the convict. When they were leaving the pub, the stranger gave Pip two pounds, which Pip later gave to his sister. This causes Pip to worry that someone will find out that he helped the convict.

Chapter 11

Not long after seeing the man in the pub, Pip is goes back to Miss Havishams, where he meets some people visiting her on her birthday. He meets a burly man of an exceedingly dark complexion on the stairs, who gives him a hard time. Pip then plays cards with Estella again. After that he goes down to the garden where he meets a pale young gentleman. The pale young gentleman asks Pip to fight and they fight. Pip knocks the young gentleman down, and Estella tells him he can kiss her, so Pip kisses her on the cheek. Pip goes home, and is upset that Estella looks down on him.

Chapter 1

Pip is afraid he will be in trouble for fighting, but the fight is not mentioned the next time he goes to Miss Havishams. Pip visits Miss Havishams regularly for the next few months. He pushes Miss Havisham around in her wheelchair, begins to think that Miss Havisham intends to help him become a well to do gentleman. He is still impressed with Estella and doesn't realize that Miss Havisham is encouraging Estella to torment him. Pip starts to grow apart from his family and becomes closer to Biddy than Joe. Pip is beginning to feel ashamed of Joe for being so common. Later, when Miss Havisham offers to help Pip with the indenture that would make Pip Joes apprentice, and he is very upset because he finally realizes she really never intended to make him a gentleman.

Chapter 1

When Joe goes to Miss Havishams house to complete Pips apprenticeship papers; he is completely out of place and Estella laughs at him and Pip. Miss Havisham gives Pip twenty-five pounds, and Pip and Joe go to the Town Hall to finalize the apprenticeship. They then go out to dinner to celebrate, but Pip is upset and disappointed with his life.

Chapter 14

Pip starts working in Joes blacksmith shop and begins to grow up. He hates being Joes apprentice, but out of consideration for Joe, he keeps his feelings to himself. As time goes on Pip thinks about Estella and wishes he was still going to Miss Havishams.

Chapter 15

Pip tried to continue to improve himself and expand his knowledge, and even tried to teach Joe to read. One day, Pip mentioned to Joe that he thought he should visit Miss Havisham again, but Joe told him it wasn't a good idea. However, Pip decided he would do what he wanted.

Joes helper, Orlick, treated Pip terribly and made his life miserable. Once when Pip was very young, Orlick told him that the devil lived in a corner of the forge. One day Pip's sister, Mrs. Joe, got in a fight with Orlick and Joe had to come to her aide and beat Orlick in the fight.

Pip went to Miss Havisham's but was disappointed to find out that Estella had been sent abroad. He then went to Pumblechooks for the evening, and on the way home, he saw Orlick in the shadows and heard guns fire from the prison ships. When Pip got home, he found out that Mrs. Joe has been attacked and would never be the same and was now an invalid.

Chapter 16

Pip felt really guilty when he learned that convicts with leg irons that had been filed through were suspected of the attack on his sister. The identity of the attacker is not discovered. Mrs. Joe is now unable to talk, but draws the letter T over and over. Pip thinks the "T" represents a hammer figures she is referring to Orlick. Orlick is brought to Mrs. Joe. Pip thinks she will identify him as her attacker, but she doesn't. Instead she seems friendly.

Chapter 17

Biddy came to help take care of Mrs. Joe. Pip went Miss Havisham's again, but didn't like it much without Estella. Pip talks to Biddy about his dissatisfaction with the things in his life. Pip is sort of attracted to Biddy, but he only tells her about his secret love for Estella. Biddy tells him he shouldn't bother with Estella. Pip then gets mad at her, but he still gets annoyed when Orlick shows interest in her.

Chapter 18

One night at the pub a strange man begins asking questions about a murder case Wopsle was reading about aloud from the newspaper. Pip recognizes him as the man he met on the stairs at Miss Havishams. Finally the man says he is a lawyer named Jaggers. Then he goes home with Pip and Joe where he explains that Pip is about to inherit fortune. He then says Pip's education as a gentleman is to begin immediately in London. Jaggers tells Pip that the person who is leaving him the fortune wants to remain secret. Pip can never be told the name of his benefactor.

Pip assumes that his benefactor is Miss Havisham, since he first met Jaggers at her house, and his new tutor will be Matthew Pocket, Miss Havishams cousin. Joe is sad that Pip will be leaving, but he refuses to accept money from Jaggerss. Biddy is also very sad. Pip becomes snobbish and thinks he is too good for them, when he sees Joe and Biddy together he feels sorry he is leaving them.

Chapter 1

The next day Pip starting to become anxious to go to London, and wasn't too concerned about Joe and Biddy. He tried to comfort Joe, but his heart wasn't in it, and Biddy scolded him for it. Pip visited Miss Havisham one last time, and since she knew so much about what had happened to him, he certain that Miss Havisham was his anonymous benefactor. After Pip finally leaves for London he regrets having behaved so badly toward the people who loved him most.

Chapter 0

When Pip gets to London he is surprised by the stench and the congestion. Jaggers seems to be important and lots of people are waiting to see him. Pip meets Jaggerss clerk, Wemmick.

Chapter 1

Wemmick introduces Pip to Herbert Pocket, who is the son of Pips new tutor. Pip is to spend the night with Herbert. The soon become friends. Herbert hopes to become a shipping merchant. They soon realize that Herbert was the pale young gentleman that Pip fought with at Miss Havisham's.

Chapter

Pip wants Herbert to help him become a gentleman, and so they agree to live together. Herbert corrects Pips table manners, gives him the nickname Handel. Herbert tells Pip all about Miss Havisham. When Miss Havisham was young, her family fortune was squandered by her half brother, and she fell in love with a man from a lower social class. They planned to get married and he convinced her to buy her half brothers share of the family brewery at an inflated price. Then on their wedding day, the man stood her up. He sent her a note which Miss Havisham received at twenty minutes to nine, the time that she stopped all her clocks. It appeared that Miss Havishams fianc had conspired with her half brother and that they split the money from the brewery sale. Later, Miss Havisham adopted Estella, but Herbert did not know the details.

Chapter

The next day, Pip went to the Royal Exchange, then went to Matthew Pockets house to be tutored and to have dinner. The Pockets home was very busy. Matthew was absentminded but kind, and his wife was ambitious but not from the upper class. The children were being raised by the nurse. Pip had two fellow students. Bentley Drummle was a future baronet, and was unpleasant. The other student was a young man named Startop who was sort of delicate.

Chapter 4

Pip returns to Jaggerss office and becomes friends with Wemmick, who invites him to dinner. Pip sees Jaggers in court and is impressed with the power of his speeches.

Chapter 5

Pip gets to know his fellow students and the Pockets and goes to dinner at both Wemmicks and Jaggerss. The Wemmick house is like something out of a dream. Pip thinks that Wemmick's personality changes when he gets home. At home he is happy and cheerful, at work he is all business.

Chapter 6

Jaggerss house is rather depressing. He only has a dreary housekeeper, namedMolly. Pips fellow students go to dinner at Jaggerss with Pip, and Pip and Drummle argue over a loan Drummle borrowed from Startop. Jaggers warns Pip that he should stay away from Drummle.

Chapter 7

When Joe visits Pip in London, Pip thinks Joe will disapprove of his lifestyle and Drummle will look down on him because of Joe. Joes visit doesn't go too well. Joe tells Pip the news from home, but Pip isn't very interested until Joe says that Estella has returned and wants to see Pip. This improves Pip's attitude, but Joe then.

Chapter 8

Pip goes home to apologize to Joe and see Estella if he can. On the trip Pip has to share the coach with two convicts. One of them the stranger who gave Pip money in the pub. The convict does not recognize Pip but, Pip overhears him explaining that the convict Pip helped long ago asked him to give the money to Pip. Pip is upset when he hears this and gets off the coach. When Pip gets to his hotel, he finds out that Pumblechook is taking credit for his good fortune.

Chapter

The next day Pip goes to Miss Havishams when he finds Orlick, who is now Miss Havishams porter. When he sees Estella, he is dazzeled by her beauty. Despite his improved status, Pip feels inadequate around her. Miss Havisham gives Pip a hard time. Pip walks with Estella in the garden, but she is indifferent. Back in the house, he finds Jaggers and is uncomfortable.

Chapter 0

Pip tells Jaggers about Orlicks history, and Jaggers fires him. Pip is then teased by the tailors apprentice. Pip is down when he returns to London. Herbert tries to cheer him up and also tells him that Miss Havisham does not intend for him to marry Estella. Herbert says he is also in love and, his fiance is named Clara, but he is too poor to get married.

Chapter 1

Pip and Herbert go to a theater, where Wopsle plays Hamlet. Pip takes Wopsle to dinner after the play, but he is still in a bad mood.

Chapter

Estella sends Pip a note telling him to meet her in London at a train station. Pip arrives very early and runs into Wemmick. Wemmick takes Pip on a tour of Newgate Prison. Pip feels uncomfortable, but Wemmick is relaxed. He introduces Pip to a man who has been sentenced to death by hanging.

Chapter

Pip meets Estella and she is arrogant toward him, but he is excited because he feels they are destined to be married. Pip escorts Estella to the house where she is staying, and returns to the Pockets house.

Chapter 4

Pip feels guilty about the way he has treated Joe and Biddy, and thinks he has been a bad influence on Herbert. The two men are reviewing their debts when a letter arrives with the news that Mrs. Joe has died.

Chapter 5

Pip is surprised at who upset and sad he is about his sisters death. He goes home for the funeral. He tries to improve his relationship with Joe and Biddy. Biddy is not sure about Pip's actions. The next day Pip says goodbye to them and walks into the mist.

Chapter 6

Pip finally turns twenty-one, which means he is an adult and will get regular income directly from his fortune rather than having to go to Jaggers for his money. Pip is excited, because he hopes that Jaggers can now tell him who his benefactor is. In spite of Herberts warning, Pip is certain that it is Miss Havisham and that she intends for him to marry Estella. When Pip talks to Jaggers, Jaggers is strictly business and only tells Pip that his income will be five hundred pounds a year and Jaggers refuses to take responsibility for anything else. For some strange reason, this conversation reminds Pip of his meeting with the convict in the graveyard so long ago. Pip invites Jaggers to him at his birthday dinner, but Jaggerss presence makes the evening a little depressing for Pip and Herbert.

Chapter 7

When he gets his income, Pip wants to help Herbert get into the merchant business. Pip asks Wemmick for advice. Wemmick first tells Pip not to help Herbert, but later, at the Castle Wemmick happily gives Pip the opposite advice and agrees to help Pip with it. They find a merchant willing to take in a partner, and Pip buys Herbert the partnership. Pip does this anonymously, so then Herbert, like Pip, does not know his benefactor.

Chapter 8

Pip spends a lot of time with Estella in London at the house of Mrs. Brandley where Estella is staying, but Estella doesn't consider him a serious suitor. Instead he goes everywhere with Estella watching her treat her other suitors rudely while she mostly ignores him. He doesn't understand why Miss Havisham doesn't announce their engagement. Pip and Estella visit Miss Havisham, and for the first time, Pip friction between Miss Havisham and Estella Miss Havisham encorages Estella on to break mens hearts, but Estella is cold toward Miss Havisham. Pip then learns that Drummle is courting Estella. Pip is upset and asks Estella about it, but she doesn't take seriously. She tells Pip he is the only suitor she doesnt try to deceive and entrap. This upsets Pip even more.

Chapter

Some time later when Pip is twenty-three, he hears footsteps on his stairs. An old sailor comes into Pips room. Pip isn't very friendly to him until he recognizes him. It is Pips convict, from the cemetery and the marsh when Pip was a boy. Pip is shocked as he learns the truth. The convict eventually went to Australia, where he made a huge fortune. Because of Pips kindness to him on the marsh, the man arranged to use his wealth to help Pip become a gentleman. The convict, not Miss Havisham, was Pips secret benefactor. Pip realized he was not meant to marry Estella at all.

Pip then learns that the convict is still running from the law, and if he is caught, he could be put to death. Pip realizes that though the convicts story has been a shock and a big let down, he has a duty to help his benefactor. Pip feeds the man and lets him stay for the night, since Herbert is away. Pip is very nervous about what has happen and when looks in on the convict, he sees a pistol on his pillow. The next day he awake up early to stormy weather.

Chapter 40

Pip trips over a man on his staircase. He runs for the watchman, but when they return the man is gone. Pip then talks to the convict, who says his name is Abel Magwitch. Pip decides it wuld be safer to call Magwitch "Uncle Provis," an name Magwitch made up on the trip from Australia to England. Pip goes to Jaggers to confirm Magwitchs story. Magwitch stays at Pip's apartment and embarrasses Pip with his bad manners and rough speech.

Chapter 41

After a few days Herbert returns home. Magwitch leaves, and Herbert and Pip discuss what has happened. They decide that Pip should no longer take Magwitchs money. They also decide Pip should take Magwitch out of the country where he will be safe.

Chapter 4

The next day, Magwitch tells Pip and Herbert his story. He was an orphan and lived a life of crime out of desperation. As a young man, he met a gentleman criminal named Compeyson and fell under his influence. Compeyson had driven another accomplice, Arthur, into alcoholism and madness. Magwitch said that Arthur was driven mad by the memory of a wealthy woman he and Compeyson had victimized. He said that when he and Compeyson were caught, Compeyson turned agaist him, using his gentlemans manners to obtain a light sentence. Magwitch wanted revenge, and Compeyson was the man Pip saw him fighting with that night on the marsh.

At that point, Herbert passed Pip a note. The note says that Arthur was Miss Havishams half brother and Compeyson was the man who stood her up on their wedding day.

Chapter 4

Pip is ashamed that his social status came from such a rough, low class man. Pip decides that he must leave Estella forever. After an unpleasant run in with Drummle at the inn, Pip goes to Miss Havisham's to see Miss Havisham and Estella one last time.

Chapter 44

Miss Havisham admits that she allowed Pip to think she was his benefactor, and then she agrees to provide help to Herbert since Pip can no longer use his money. Pip finally tells Estella he loves her, but she coldly says that she has decided to marry Drummle. Pip is so upset that he walks all the way back to London. As he gets close to home he gets a note from Wemmick, tht says dont go home.

Chapter 45

Pip is afraid to go home, so he spends a night at an inn. The next day Wemmick tells Pip that he found out from Jaggerss office that Compeyson was looking for Magwitch. Wemmick says that Herbert took Magwitch to Claras house, so Pip leaves to go there.

Chapter 46

At Clara's house Pip discovers that Claras father is a drunk and he is glad that he has helped Clara and Herbert get away from him. Pip finds Magwitch and is surprised that he is concerned about Magwitch's safety. Herbert and Pip talk about sneaking Magwitch out on the river. Pip even considers staying with Magwitch after their escape. Pip buys a rowboat and keeps an eye out for Compeyson.

Chapter 47

Pip is waiting to send Magwitch downriver. Despite Pip's improved feelings about Magwitch , he feels he must not spend any more of Magwitchs money, so he goes into debt. He figures Estella must have married Drummle by now, but he doesn't want to think about it. He is worried about Magwitch.

Pip went to the theater to relax, but Wopsle tells him that one of the convicts from the marsh was in the audience behind him. Pip now knows that Compeyson must be following him.

Chapter 48

Jaggers has Pip to dinner, and gives him a note from Miss Havisham. When Jaggerss housekeeper Molly comes in, Pip realizes that Molly is the person Estella resembles. He realizes that Molly must be Estellas mother. Pip questions Wemmick about Molly, and he learns that Molly was accused of killing a woman over her common-law husband and murdering her daughter to hurt him. Pip is sure that Estella is Molly's lost daughter.

Chapter 4

When Pip goes to see Miss Havisham, she feels guilty for having encouraged Estella to break his heart. Miss Havisham starts to cry and clings to Pips feet, begging him to forgive her. Pip is kind to her, but then goes for a walk in the garden. There, he has a feeling that Miss Havisham is dead. He looks up at her window just in time to see her go too near the fire and get caught in the flames. Pip rushes in to save her, and smothers the fire with the tablecloth. Miss Havisham lives, but is an invalid. Pip stays with her after the doctors leave, then the next morning, he leaves and returns to London.

Chapter 50

Pip was severely burned saving Miss Havisham. When Herbert changes Pip's bandages, they agree that they have both grown like Magwitch a little better. Herbert tells Pip the part of Magwitchs story that he originally left out, about the woman in his past. The story is the same as the story of Jaggerss housekeeper, Molly. Pip then figures out that Magwitch, was Mollys common-law husband and so he must be Estellas father.

Chapter 51

Pip is now determined to find out the rest of the story. Pip goes to see Jaggers and eventually manages get him to tell him what happened. the truth of Estellas parentage. Pip cannot convince Jaggers until he appeals to Wemmicks kinder side to help him. Jaggers is so happy to find that Wemmick has a kinder side that he confirms that Estella is Mollys daughter, though he didnt know about Magwitch.

Chapter 5

Pip leaves to finalize Herberts partnership and learns that Herbert is to be transferred to the Middle East. Herbert fantasizes about taking Clara to the land of the Arabian Nights.

Pip gets a message from Wemmick saying that they need to be ready to leave with Magwitch in two days. Pip then finds an anonymous threat against Uncle Provis, that orders him to secretly go to the marshes. Pip goes to the inn near his old home, and remebers how badly he has treated Joe since he became a gentleman. Pip regrets the loss of Joes friendship the most. That night, with his arm still injured from the fire, Pip goes the meeting on the marshes.

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Stars

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Evolution and death of stars

Stars are balls of gas that shine or used to shine because of nuclear fusion in their cores. The most familiar star is the Sun. The nuclear fusion in stars produces a force that pushes the material in a star outward. However, the gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself pulls the material inward. A star can remain stable as long as the outward pressure and gravitational force balance. The properties of a star depend on its mass, its temperature, and its stage in evolution.

Astronomers study stars by measuring their brightness or, with more difficulty, their distances from Earth. They measure the "colour" of a starthe differences in the stars brightness from one part of the spectrum to anotherto determine its temperature. They also study the spectrum of a stars light to determine not only the temperature, but also the chemical makeup of the stars outer layers.

Many different types of stars exist. Some types of stars are really just different stages of a stars evolution. Some types are different because the stars formed with much more or much less mass than other stars, or because they formed close to other stars. The Sun is a type of star known as a main-sequence star. Eventually, main-sequence stars such as the Sun swell into giant stars and then evolve into tiny, dense, white dwarf stars. Main-sequence stars and giants have a role in the behavior of most variable stars and novas. A star much more massive than the Sun will become a supergiant star, and then explode as a supernova. A supernova may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole.

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The H-R diagram compares the brightness of a star with its temperature. The diagonal line running from the upper left to the lower right is called the Main Sequence. Stars lying on the Main Sequence are blue when they are bright and red when they are dim. Stars in the upper right (called Red Giants) are very bright, but still appear red. Stars near the bottom (known as White Dwarfs) are white, but not very bright. This diagram was developed independently by Ejnar Hertzsprung, a Danish astronomer, and Henry Norris Russell, an American astronomer.

Russell independently worked out a way to graph basic properties of stars. On the horizontal axis of their

Main sequence stars, on an H-R diagram, the brightest stars are at the top and the hottest stars are at the left. Hertzsprung and Russell found that most stars fell on a diagonal line across the H-R diagram from upper left to lower right. This line is called the main sequence. The diagonal line of main-sequence stars indicates that temperature and brightness of these stars are directly related. The hotter a main-sequence star is, the brighter it is. The Sun is a main-sequence star, located in about the middle of the graph. More faint, cool stars exist than hot, bright ones, so the Sun is brighter and hotter than most of the stars in the universe.

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical physics no longer applies, and astronomers use Einsteins general theory of relativity to explain the behavior of light and matter under such strong gravitational forces. According to general relativity, space around the core becomes so warped that nothing can escape, creating a black hole. A star with a mass ten times the mass of the Sun would become a black hole if it were compressed to 0 km (60 mi) or less in diameter.

Astronomers have various ways of detecting black holes. When a black hole is in a binary system, matter from the companion star spirals into the black hole, forming a disk of gas around it. The disk becomes so hot that it gives off X rays that astronomers can detect from Earth. Astronomers use X-ray telescopes in space to find X-ray sources, and then they look for signs that an unseen object of more than about five times the mass of the Sun is causing gravitational tugs on a visible object. By 1 astronomers had found about a dozen potential black holes.

About the same time as Einsteins Theory of General Relativity came out (about 115), Karl Schwarzschild derived a system that describes the space time geometry of empty space surrounding any spherical mass. One of the more remarkable predictions of Schwarz child's geometry was that if a mass (M) were compressed inside a critical radius (rs) then its gravity would become so strong that not even light could escape. The Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon) rs of mass M are given in mathematical formula like so

rs= G M / c

G represents Newtons gravitational constant, and c being the speed of light.

By Ben Herries

Evolution and death of stars

Stars are balls of gas that shine or used to shine because of nuclear fusion in their cores. The most familiar star is the Sun. The nuclear fusion in stars produces a force that pushes the material in a star outward. However, the gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself pulls the material inward. A star can remain stable as long as the outward pressure and gravitational force balance. The properties of a star depend on its mass, its temperature, and its stage in evolution.

Astronomers study stars by measuring their brightness or, with more difficulty, their distances from Earth. They measure the "colour" of a starthe differences in the stars brightness from one part of the spectrum to anotherto determine its temperature. They also study the spectrum of a stars light to determine not only the temperature, but also the chemical makeup of the stars outer layers.

Many different types of stars exist. Some types of stars are really just different stages of a stars evolution. Some types are different because the stars formed with much more or much less mass than other stars, or because they formed close to other stars. The Sun is a type of star known as a main-sequence star. Eventually, main-sequence stars such as the Sun swell into giant stars and then evolve into tiny, dense, white dwarf stars. Main-sequence stars and giants have a role in the behavior of most variable stars and novas. A star much more massive than the Sun will become a supergiant star, and then explode as a supernova. A supernova may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole.

The H-R diagram compares the brightness of a star with its temperature. The diagonal line running from the upper left to the lower right is called the Main Sequence. Stars lying on the Main Sequence are blue when they are bright and red when they are dim. Stars in the upper right (called Red Giants) are very bright, but still appear red. Stars near the bottom (known as White Dwarfs) are white, but not very bright. This diagram was developed independently by Ejnar Hertzsprung, a Danish astronomer, and Henry Norris Russell, an American astronomer.

Russell independently worked out a way to graph basic properties of stars. On the horizontal axis of their

Main sequence stars, on an H-R diagram, the brightest stars are at the top and the hottest stars are at the left. Hertzsprung and Russell found that most stars fell on a diagonal line across the H-R diagram from upper left to lower right. This line is called the main sequence. The diagonal line of main-sequence stars indicates that temperature and brightness of these stars are directly related. The hotter a main-sequence star is, the brighter it is. The Sun is a main-sequence star, located in about the middle of the graph. More faint, cool stars exist than hot, bright ones, so the Sun is brighter and hotter than most of the stars in the universe.

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical physics no longer applies, and astronomers use Einsteins general theory of relativity to explain the behavior of light and matter under such strong gravitational forces. According to general relativity, space around the core becomes so warped that nothing can escape, creating a black hole. A star with a mass ten times the mass of the Sun would become a black hole if it were compressed to 0 km (60 mi) or less in diameter.

Astronomers have various ways of detecting black holes. When a black hole is in a binary system, matter from the companion star spirals into the black hole, forming a disk of gas around it. The disk becomes so hot that it gives off X rays that astronomers can detect from Earth. Astronomers use X-ray telescopes in space to find X-ray sources, and then they look for signs that an unseen object of more than about five times the mass of the Sun is causing gravitational tugs on a visible object. By 1 astronomers had found about a dozen potential black holes.

About the same time as Einsteins Theory of General Relativity came out (about 115), Karl Schwarzschild derived a system that describes the space time geometry of empty space surrounding any spherical mass. One of the more remarkable predictions of Schwarz child's geometry was that if a mass (M) were compressed inside a critical radius (rs) then its gravity would become so strong that not even light could escape. The Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon) rs of mass M are given in mathematical formula like so

rs= G M / c

G represents Newtons gravitational constant, and c being the speed of light.

By Ben Herries

Stars that fall in the upper right of the H-R diagram are known as giant stars or, for even brighter stars, supergiant stars. Supergiant stars have both larger diameters and larger masses than giant stars.

Giant and supergiant stars represent stages in the lives of stars after they have burned most of their internal hydrogen fuel. Stars swell as they move off the main sequence, becoming giants andfor more massive starssupergiants.

White Dwarf Stars, A few stars fall in the lower left portion of the H-R diagram, below the main sequence. Just as giant stars are larger and brighter than main-sequences stars, these stars are smaller and dimmer. These smaller, dimmer stars are hot enough to be white or blue-white in colour and are known as white dwarfs.

White dwarf stars are only about the size of Earth. They represent stars with about the mass of the Sun that have burned as much hydrogen as they can. The gravitational force of a white dwarfs mass is pulling the star inward, but electrons in the star resist being pushed together. The gravitational force is able to pull the star into a much denser form than it was in when the star was burning hydrogen. The final stage of life for all stars like the Sun is the white dwarf stage.

Novas, Sometimes stars brighten drastically, becoming as much as 100 times brighter than they were. These stars are called novas (Latin for new stars). They are not really new, just much brighter than they were earlier. A nova is a binary, or double, star in which one member is a white dwarf and the other is a giant or supergiant. Matter from the large star falls onto the small star. After a thick layer of the large stars atmosphere has collected on the white dwarf, the layer burns off in a nuclear fusion reaction. The fusion produces a huge amount of energy, which, from Earth, appears as the brightening of the nova. The nova gradually returns to its original state, and material from the large star again begins to collect on the white dwarf.

Supernovas, Sometimes stars brighten many times more drastically than novas do. A star that had been too dim to see can become one of the brightest stars in the sky. These stars are called supernovas. Sometimes supernovas that occur in other galaxies are so bright that, from Earth, they appear as bright as their host galaxy.

There are two types of supernova. One type is an extreme case of a nova, in which matter falls from a giant or supergiant companion onto a white dwarf. In the case of a supernova, the white dwarf gains so much fuel from its companion that the star increases in mass until strong gravitational forces cause it to become unstable. The star collapses and the core explodes, vaporizing much of the white dwarf and producing an immense amount of light. Only bits of the white dwarf remain after this type of supernova occurs.

The other type of supernova occurs when a supergiant star uses up all its nuclear fuel in nuclear fusion reactions. The star uses up its hydrogen fuel, but the core is hot enough that it provides the initial energy necessary for the star to begin "burning" helium, then carbon, and then heavier elements through nuclear fusion. The process stops when the core is mostly iron, which is too heavy for the star to "burn" in a way that gives off energy. With no such fuel left, the inward gravitational attraction of the stars material for itself has no outward balancing force, and the core collapses. As it collapses, the core releases a shock wave that tears apart the stars atmosphere. The core continues collapsing until it forms either a neutron star or a black hole, depending on its mass.

Neutron stars are the collapsed cores sometimes left behind by supernova explosions. Pulsars are a special type of neutron star. Pulsars and neutron stars form when the remnant of a star left after a supernova explosion collapses until it is about 10 km in radius. At that point, the neutronselectrically neutral atomic particlesof the star resist being pressed together further. When the force produced by the neutrons balances the gravitational force, the core stops collapsing. At that point, the star is so dense that a teaspoonful has the mass of a billion metric tons.

Neutron stars become pulsars when the magnetic field of a neutron star directs a beam of radio waves out into space. The star is so small that it rotates from one to a few hundred times per second. As the star rotates the beam of radio waves sweeps out a path in space. If Earth is in the path of the beam, radio astronomers see the rotating beam as periodic pulses of radio waves. This pulsing is the reason these stars are called pulsars.

Black holes are objects that are so massive and dense that their immense gravitational pull does not even let light escape. If the core left over after a supernova explosion has a mass of more than about fives times that of the Sun, the force holding up the neutrons in the core is not large enough to balance the inward gravitational force. No outward force is large enough to resist the gravitational force. The core of the star continues to collapse. When the cores mass is sufficiently concentrated, the gravitational force of the core is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. The gravitational force is so strong that classical

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Analysis of Police Corruption

Police corruption is a complex phenomenon, which does not

readily submit to simple analysis. It is a problem that has and will

Custom Essays on Annalysis of police corruption

continue to affect us all, whether we are civilians or law enforcement

officers. Since its beginnings, may aspects of policing have changed;

however, one aspect that has remained relatively unchanged is the

existence of corruption. An examination of a local newspaper or any

police-related publication on any given day will have an article about

a police officer that got busted committing some kind of corrupt act.

Police corruption has increased dramatically with the illegal cocaine

trade, with officers acting alone or in-groups to steal money from

dealers or distribute cocaine themselves. Large groups of corrupt

police have been caught in New York, New Orleans, Washington, DC, and

Los Angeles.

Methodology Corruption within police departments falls into

basic categories, which are external corruption and internal

corruption. In this report I will concentrate only on external

corruption because it has been the larger center of attention

recently. I have decided to include the fairly recent accounts of

corruption from a few major cities, mainly New York, because that is

where I have lived for the past years. I compiled my information

from numerous articles written in the New York Times over the last 5

years. My definitional infornmation and background data came from

various books cited that have been written on the issue of police

corruption. Those books helped me create a basis of just what the

different types of corruption and deviances are, as well as how and

why corruption happens. The books were filled with useful insite but

were not update enough, so I relied on the newspaper articles to

provide me with the current, and regional information that was needed

to complete this report. In simple terms, corruption in policing is

usually viewed as the misuse of authority by a police officer acting

offically to fulfill personal needs or wants. For a corrupt act to

occure, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present

simultaneously 1) missuse of authority, ) missuse of official

capacity, and ) missuse of personal attainment. (Dantzker, 15 p

157) It can be said that power inevitably tends to corrupt, and it is

yet to be recongnized that, while there is no reason to suppose that

policemen as individuals are any less fallible than other members of

society, people are often shocked and outraged when policemen are

exposed violating the law. The reason is simple. There diviance

elicits a special feeling of betrayal. Most studies support the view

that corruption is endemic, if not universal, in police departments.

The danger of corruption for police, and this is that it may invert

the formal goals of the organization and may lead to the use of

organizational power to encourage and create crime rather than to

deter it (Sherman 178 p 1) General police deviance can include

brutality, discrimination, sexual harassment, intimidation, and

illicit use of weapons. However it is not particularly obvious where

brutality, discrimination, and misconduct end and corruption begin.

Essentially, police corruption falls into two major categories--

external corruption which concerns police contacts with the public,

and internal corruption, which involves the relationships among

policemen within the works of the police department. The external

corruption generally concists of one ore more of the following

activities 1) Payoffs to police by essentially non-criminal elements

who fail to comply with stringent statutes or city ordinances; (for

example, inviduals who repeatedly violate traffic laws). ) Payoffs to

police by individuals who continually violate the law as a method of

making money (for example, prostitutes, narcotics addicts and

pusshers, & professional burglars). ) Clean Graft where money is

paid to police for services, or where courtesy discounts are given as

a matter of course to the police. Police officers have been involved

in activities such as extortion of money and/or narcotics from

narcotics viloators in order to aviod arrest; they have accepted

bribes; they have sold narcotics. They have known of narcotics

vilolations and have failed to take proper enforcement action. They

have entered into personal associations with narcotics criminals and

in some cases have used narcotics. They have given false testimony in

court in order to obtain dismissal of the charges against a

defendant. (Sherman 178 p 1) A scandal is perceived both as a

socially constructed phenomenon and as an agent of change that can

lead to realignments in the structure of power within oraganizations.

New york, for instance, has had more than a half dozen major scandals

concerning its police department within a century. It was the Knapp

Commission in 17 that first brought attention to the NYPD when they

released the results of over years of investigations of alleged

corruption. The findings were that bribery, especially amoung

narcotics officers, was extremely high. As a result many officers were

prosecuted and many more lost their jobs. A massive re-structuring

took place aftewards with strict rules and regulations to make sure

that the problem would never happen again. Be that as it may, the

problem did arrise once gain... Some of the most recent events to

shake New York City and bring attention to the national problem of

police corruption was brought up begining in 1 when five officers

were arrested on drug-trafficing charges.

Michael Dowd, the suspected ring leader, was the kind of cop

who gave new meaning to the word moonlighting. It wasnt just any job

that the 10-year veteran of the New York City force was working on the

side. Dowd was a drug dealer. From scoring free pizza as a rookie he

graduated to pocketing cash seized in drug raids and from there simply

to robbing dealers outright, sometimes also relieving them of drugs

that he would resell. Soon he had formed ''a crew of 15 to 0

officers in his Brooklyn precinct who hit up dealers regularly.

Eventually one of them was paying Dowd and another officer $8,000 a

week in protection money. Dowd bought four suburban homes and a

$5,000 red Corvette. Nobody asked how he managed all that on

take-home pay of $400 a week. In May 1 Dowd, four other officers

and one former officer were arrested for drug trafficking by police in

Long Islands Suffolk County. When the arrests hit the papers, it was

forehead-slapping time among police brass. Not only had some of their

cops become robbers, but the crimes had to be uncovered by a suburban

police force. Politicians and the media started asking what had

happened to the system for rooting out police corruption established

1 years ago at the urging of the Knapp Commission, the investigatory

body that heard Officer Frank Serpico and other police describe a

citywide network of rogue cops. (New York Times, March , 1 p 8)

To find out, at the time, New York City mayor David Dinkins

established the Mollen Commission, named for its chairman, Milton

Mollen, a former New York judge. Last week, in the same Manhattan

hearing room where the Knapp Commission once sat, the new body heard

Dowd and other officers add another lurid chapter to the old story of

police corruption. And with many American cities wary that drug money

will turn their departments bad, police brass around the country were

lending an uneasy ear to the tales of officers sharing lines of coke

from the dashboard of their squad cars and scuttling down fire escapes

with sacks full of cash stolen from dealers apartments. (New York

Times, April , 1 p. 5) The Mollen Commission has not uncovered a

citywide system of payoffs among the 0,000-member force. In fact,

last weeks testimony focused on three precincts, all in heavy crime

areas. But the tales, nevertheless, were troubling. Dowd described how

virtually the entire precinct patrol force would rendezvous at times

at an inlet on Jamaica Bay, where they would drink, shoot off guns in

the air and plan their illegal drug raids. (New York Times, Nov. 17,

1 p. ) It was victimless crimes problem which many view was a

prime cause in the growth of police abuse. Reports have shown that the

large majority of corrupt acts by police involve payoffs from both the

perpetrators and the victims of victimless crimes. The knapp

commission in the New York found that although corruption among police

officers was not restricted to this area, the bulk of it involved

payments of money to the police from gamblers and prostitutes. (Knapp

Commission Report, 17 pp 1-) ''The cops who were engaged in

corruption 0 years ago took money to cover up the criminal activity

of others, says Michael Armstrong, who was chief counsel to the

Knapp Commission. '' Now it seems cops have gone into competition with

street criminals. (Newsweek, Oct 1,1 p. 18) For cops as for

anyone else, money works age for crooked police. Gambling syndicates

in the 150s were protected by a payoff system more elaborate than the

Internal Revenue Service. Pervasive corruption may have lessened in

recent years, as many experts believe, but individual examples seem to

have grown more outrageous. In March authorities in Atlanta broke up a

ring of weight-lifting officers who were charged with robbing strip

clubs and private homes, and even carrying off 450-lb. safes from

retail stores. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) The deluge of

cash that has flowed from the drug trade has created opportunities for

quick dirty money on a scale never seen before. In the 180s

Philadelphia saw more than 0 officers convicted of taking part in a

scheme to extort money from dealers. In Los Angeles an FBI probe

focusing on the L.A. County sheriffs department has resulted so far

in 6 indictments and 1 convictions on charges related to enormous

thefts of cash during drug raids -- more than $1 million in one

instance. ''The deputies were pursuing the money more aggressively

than they were pursuing drugs, says Assistant U.S. Attorney Steven

Bauer. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) When cities enlarge

their police forces quickly in response to public fears about crime,

it can also mean an influx of younger and less well-suited officers.

That was a major reason for the enormous corruption scandal that hit

Miami in the mid-180s, when about 10% of the citys police were

either jailed, fired or disciplined in connection with a scheme in

which officers robbed and sometimes killed cocaine smugglers on the

Miami River, then resold the drugs. Many of those involved had been

hired when the department had beefed up quickly after the 180 riots

and the Mariel boatlift. ''We didnt get the quality of officers we

should have, says department spokesman Dave Magnusson. (Carter,

18 pp. 78-7) When it came time to clean house, says former Miami

police chief Perry Anderson, civil service board members often chose

to protect corrupt cops if there was no hard evidence to convict them

in the courts. ''I tried to fire 5 people with tarnished badges, but

it was next to impossible, he recalls. (Carter, 18 pp. 78-7)

The Mollen Commission testimony could also lead to second

thoughts on the growth of community policing, the back-to-the-beat

philosophy that in recent years has been returning officers to

neighborhood patrol in cities around the country, including New York.

Getting to know the neighborhood can mean finding more occasions for

bribe taking, which is one reason that in many places beat patrolling

was scaled back since the 160s in favor of more isolated squad-car

teams. The real test of a department is not so much whether its

officers are tempted by money but whether there is an institutional

culture that discourages them from succumbing. In Los Angeles the

sheriffs department ''brought us the case, says FBI special agent

Charlie Parsons. ''They worked with us hand in glove throughout the

investigation. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) In the years

after it was established, following the Knapp Commission disclosures,

the New York City police departments internal affairs division was

considered one of the nations most effective in stalking corruption.

But that may not be the case anymore. Police sergeant Joseph Trimboli,

a department investigator, told the Mollen Commission that when he

tried to root out Dowd and other corrupt cops, his efforts were

blocked by higher-ups in the department. At one point, Trimboli

claimed, he was called to a meeting of police officials and told he

was under suspicion as a drug trafficker. ''They did not want this

investigation to exist, he said. (New York Times, April , 1 p.

5) It was at this time that New York City police commissioner, at the

time, Raymond Kelly announced a series of organizational changes,

including a larger staff and better-coordinated field investigations,

intended to improve internal affairs. His critics say those changes

dont go far enough. Much of that happened after Kellys reforms had

been announced. The Mollen Commission is recommend the establishment

of an outside monitoring agency, a move that Kelly and other police

brass have expressed some reservations about. ''No group is good at

policing itself, says Knapp Commission counsel Armstrong. ''It

doesnt hurt to have somebody looking over their shoulder. An

independent body, however, might be less effective at getting

co-operation from cops prone to close ranks against outsiders. ''You

have to have the confidence of officers and information about whats

going on internally, says former U.S. Attorney Thomas Puccio, who

prosecuted a number of police-corruption cases. (New York Times, April

, 1 p. 5) Getting that information was no easier when officers

were encouraged to report wrongdoing to authorities within their own

department. In many cities that have them, internal affairs divisions

are resented within the ranks for getting cops to turn in other cops

-- informers are even recruited from police-academy cadets -- and for

rarely targeting the brass. ''One of the things that has come out in

the hearings is a culture within the department which seems to permit

corruption to exist, says Walter Mack, a one time federal prosecutor

who is now New Yorks deputy commissioner of internal affairs. ''But

when youre talking about cultural change, youre talking about many

years. Its not something that occurs overnight. (New York Post,

June 14, 1 p. 8) Dowd, who was sentenced prison on guilty please,

put it another way. ''Cops dont want to turn in other cops, he

said. ''Cops dont want to be a rat. And even when honest cops are

willing to blow the whistle, there may not be anyone willing to

listen. (New York Times, Mar. , 1 p. 14) Is there a solution to

the police corruption problem? Probably not because since its

beginings, many aspects of policing have changed, but one thing that

has not is the existence of corruption. Police agenies, in an attempt

to elminate corruption have tried everything from increasing salaries,

requiring more training and education, and developing polices which

are intended to focus directly on factors leading to corruption. What

have all these changes done to eliminate or even decrease the

corruption problem? Little or nothing. Despite police departments

attempts to control corruption, it still occurs. Regardless of the

fact, police corruption cannot simply be over looked. Controling

corruption is the only way that we can really limit corruption,

because corruption is the by-product of the individual police officer,

societal views, and, police environmental factors. Therefore control

must come from not only the police department, but also must require

the assistance and support of the community members. Controling

corruption from the departmental level requires a strong leadership

organization, because corruption can take place any where from the

patrol officer to the chief. The top administrator must make it clear

from the start that he and the other members of the department are

against any form of corrupt activity, and that it will not be

tollerated in any way, shape, or form. If a police administrator does

not act strongly with disciplinary action against any corrupt

activity, the message conveyed to other officers within the department

will not be that of intimated nature. In addition it may even increase

corruption, because officers feel no actions will be taken against

them. Another way that police agencies can control its corruption

problem starts orginally in the academy. Ethical decisions and

behavior should be promoted, because failing to do make officers aware

of the consequences of corruption does nothing but encourages it.

Finally, many police departments, especially large ones, have an

Internal Affairs unit which operates to investigate improper conduct

of police departments. These units some times are run within the

department or can be a total outside agency to insure that there is

not corruption from within the Internal Affairs unit, as was alleged

in the 1 NYPD corruption scandal. Such a unit may be all that is

need to prevent many officers from being tempted into falling for

corrupt behavior patterns. Although the police agaency should be the

main source of controling its own corruption problem, there also

requires some support and assistance from the local community. It is

important that the public be educated to the negative affects of

corruption on their police agency. They should be taught that even

graitudes (the most basic and common form of police corruption) is

only a catalyst for more and future corruption. The community may even

go as far as establishing review boards, and investigative bodies to

help keep a careful eye on the agency. If we do not act to try and

control it, the costs can be enormous, because it affects not only the

individual, his department, the law enforcement community as a whole,

but society as well. Police corruption can be controlled; it just

takes a little extra effort. And In the long run, that effort will be

well worth it to both the agency and the community. (Walker, 1 p.

8)

The powers given by the state to the police to use force have

always caused concern. Although improvements have been made to control

corruption, numerous opportunities exist for deviant and corrupt

practices. The opportunity to aquire power in excess of that which is

legally permitted or to misuse power is always available. The police

subculture is a contributing factor to these practices, because

officers who often act in a corrupt manner are often over looked, and

condoned by other members of the subculture. As mentioned from the

very begining of this report the problem of police deviance and

corruption will never be completely solved, just as the police will

never be able to solve the crime problem in our society. One step in

the right direction, however, is the monitoring and control of the

police and the appropriate use of police style to enforce laws and to

provide service to the public.

Analysis of Police Corruption

Police corruption is a complex phenomenon, which does not

readily submit to simple analysis. It is a problem that has and will

continue to affect us all, whether we are civilians or law enforcement

officers. Since its beginnings, may aspects of policing have changed;

however, one aspect that has remained relatively unchanged is the

existence of corruption. An examination of a local newspaper or any

police-related publication on any given day will have an article about

a police officer that got busted committing some kind of corrupt act.

Police corruption has increased dramatically with the illegal cocaine

trade, with officers acting alone or in-groups to steal money from

dealers or distribute cocaine themselves. Large groups of corrupt

police have been caught in New York, New Orleans, Washington, DC, and

Los Angeles.

Methodology Corruption within police departments falls into

basic categories, which are external corruption and internal

corruption. In this report I will concentrate only on external

corruption because it has been the larger center of attention

recently. I have decided to include the fairly recent accounts of

corruption from a few major cities, mainly New York, because that is

where I have lived for the past years. I compiled my information

from numerous articles written in the New York Times over the last 5

years. My definitional infornmation and background data came from

various books cited that have been written on the issue of police

corruption. Those books helped me create a basis of just what the

different types of corruption and deviances are, as well as how and

why corruption happens. The books were filled with useful insite but

were not update enough, so I relied on the newspaper articles to

provide me with the current, and regional information that was needed

to complete this report. In simple terms, corruption in policing is

usually viewed as the misuse of authority by a police officer acting

offically to fulfill personal needs or wants. For a corrupt act to

occure, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present

simultaneously 1) missuse of authority, ) missuse of official

capacity, and ) missuse of personal attainment. (Dantzker, 15 p

157) It can be said that power inevitably tends to corrupt, and it is

yet to be recongnized that, while there is no reason to suppose that

policemen as individuals are any less fallible than other members of

society, people are often shocked and outraged when policemen are

exposed violating the law. The reason is simple. There diviance

elicits a special feeling of betrayal. Most studies support the view

that corruption is endemic, if not universal, in police departments.

The danger of corruption for police, and this is that it may invert

the formal goals of the organization and may lead to the use of

organizational power to encourage and create crime rather than to

deter it (Sherman 178 p 1) General police deviance can include

brutality, discrimination, sexual harassment, intimidation, and

illicit use of weapons. However it is not particularly obvious where

brutality, discrimination, and misconduct end and corruption begin.

Essentially, police corruption falls into two major categories--

external corruption which concerns police contacts with the public,

and internal corruption, which involves the relationships among

policemen within the works of the police department. The external

corruption generally concists of one ore more of the following

activities 1) Payoffs to police by essentially non-criminal elements

who fail to comply with stringent statutes or city ordinances; (for

example, inviduals who repeatedly violate traffic laws). ) Payoffs to

police by individuals who continually violate the law as a method of

making money (for example, prostitutes, narcotics addicts and

pusshers, & professional burglars). ) Clean Graft where money is

paid to police for services, or where courtesy discounts are given as

a matter of course to the police. Police officers have been involved

in activities such as extortion of money and/or narcotics from

narcotics viloators in order to aviod arrest; they have accepted

bribes; they have sold narcotics. They have known of narcotics

vilolations and have failed to take proper enforcement action. They

have entered into personal associations with narcotics criminals and

in some cases have used narcotics. They have given false testimony in

court in order to obtain dismissal of the charges against a

defendant. (Sherman 178 p 1) A scandal is perceived both as a

socially constructed phenomenon and as an agent of change that can

lead to realignments in the structure of power within oraganizations.

New york, for instance, has had more than a half dozen major scandals

concerning its police department within a century. It was the Knapp

Commission in 17 that first brought attention to the NYPD when they

released the results of over years of investigations of alleged

corruption. The findings were that bribery, especially amoung

narcotics officers, was extremely high. As a result many officers were

prosecuted and many more lost their jobs. A massive re-structuring

took place aftewards with strict rules and regulations to make sure

that the problem would never happen again. Be that as it may, the

problem did arrise once gain... Some of the most recent events to

shake New York City and bring attention to the national problem of

police corruption was brought up begining in 1 when five officers

were arrested on drug-trafficing charges.

Michael Dowd, the suspected ring leader, was the kind of cop

who gave new meaning to the word moonlighting. It wasnt just any job

that the 10-year veteran of the New York City force was working on the

side. Dowd was a drug dealer. From scoring free pizza as a rookie he

graduated to pocketing cash seized in drug raids and from there simply

to robbing dealers outright, sometimes also relieving them of drugs

that he would resell. Soon he had formed ''a crew of 15 to 0

officers in his Brooklyn precinct who hit up dealers regularly.

Eventually one of them was paying Dowd and another officer $8,000 a

week in protection money. Dowd bought four suburban homes and a

$5,000 red Corvette. Nobody asked how he managed all that on

take-home pay of $400 a week. In May 1 Dowd, four other officers

and one former officer were arrested for drug trafficking by police in

Long Islands Suffolk County. When the arrests hit the papers, it was

forehead-slapping time among police brass. Not only had some of their

cops become robbers, but the crimes had to be uncovered by a suburban

police force. Politicians and the media started asking what had

happened to the system for rooting out police corruption established

1 years ago at the urging of the Knapp Commission, the investigatory

body that heard Officer Frank Serpico and other police describe a

citywide network of rogue cops. (New York Times, March , 1 p 8)

To find out, at the time, New York City mayor David Dinkins

established the Mollen Commission, named for its chairman, Milton

Mollen, a former New York judge. Last week, in the same Manhattan

hearing room where the Knapp Commission once sat, the new body heard

Dowd and other officers add another lurid chapter to the old story of

police corruption. And with many American cities wary that drug money

will turn their departments bad, police brass around the country were

lending an uneasy ear to the tales of officers sharing lines of coke

from the dashboard of their squad cars and scuttling down fire escapes

with sacks full of cash stolen from dealers apartments. (New York

Times, April , 1 p. 5) The Mollen Commission has not uncovered a

citywide system of payoffs among the 0,000-member force. In fact,

last weeks testimony focused on three precincts, all in heavy crime

areas. But the tales, nevertheless, were troubling. Dowd described how

virtually the entire precinct patrol force would rendezvous at times

at an inlet on Jamaica Bay, where they would drink, shoot off guns in

the air and plan their illegal drug raids. (New York Times, Nov. 17,

1 p. ) It was victimless crimes problem which many view was a

prime cause in the growth of police abuse. Reports have shown that the

large majority of corrupt acts by police involve payoffs from both the

perpetrators and the victims of victimless crimes. The knapp

commission in the New York found that although corruption among police

officers was not restricted to this area, the bulk of it involved

payments of money to the police from gamblers and prostitutes. (Knapp

Commission Report, 17 pp 1-) ''The cops who were engaged in

corruption 0 years ago took money to cover up the criminal activity

of others, says Michael Armstrong, who was chief counsel to the

Knapp Commission. '' Now it seems cops have gone into competition with

street criminals. (Newsweek, Oct 1,1 p. 18) For cops as for

anyone else, money works age for crooked police. Gambling syndicates

in the 150s were protected by a payoff system more elaborate than the

Internal Revenue Service. Pervasive corruption may have lessened in

recent years, as many experts believe, but individual examples seem to

have grown more outrageous. In March authorities in Atlanta broke up a

ring of weight-lifting officers who were charged with robbing strip

clubs and private homes, and even carrying off 450-lb. safes from

retail stores. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) The deluge of

cash that has flowed from the drug trade has created opportunities for

quick dirty money on a scale never seen before. In the 180s

Philadelphia saw more than 0 officers convicted of taking part in a

scheme to extort money from dealers. In Los Angeles an FBI probe

focusing on the L.A. County sheriffs department has resulted so far

in 6 indictments and 1 convictions on charges related to enormous

thefts of cash during drug raids -- more than $1 million in one

instance. ''The deputies were pursuing the money more aggressively

than they were pursuing drugs, says Assistant U.S. Attorney Steven

Bauer. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) When cities enlarge

their police forces quickly in response to public fears about crime,

it can also mean an influx of younger and less well-suited officers.

That was a major reason for the enormous corruption scandal that hit

Miami in the mid-180s, when about 10% of the citys police were

either jailed, fired or disciplined in connection with a scheme in

which officers robbed and sometimes killed cocaine smugglers on the

Miami River, then resold the drugs. Many of those involved had been

hired when the department had beefed up quickly after the 180 riots

and the Mariel boatlift. ''We didnt get the quality of officers we

should have, says department spokesman Dave Magnusson. (Carter,

18 pp. 78-7) When it came time to clean house, says former Miami

police chief Perry Anderson, civil service board members often chose

to protect corrupt cops if there was no hard evidence to convict them

in the courts. ''I tried to fire 5 people with tarnished badges, but

it was next to impossible, he recalls. (Carter, 18 pp. 78-7)

The Mollen Commission testimony could also lead to second

thoughts on the growth of community policing, the back-to-the-beat

philosophy that in recent years has been returning officers to

neighborhood patrol in cities around the country, including New York.

Getting to know the neighborhood can mean finding more occasions for

bribe taking, which is one reason that in many places beat patrolling

was scaled back since the 160s in favor of more isolated squad-car

teams. The real test of a department is not so much whether its

officers are tempted by money but whether there is an institutional

culture that discourages them from succumbing. In Los Angeles the

sheriffs department ''brought us the case, says FBI special agent

Charlie Parsons. ''They worked with us hand in glove throughout the

investigation. (Washington Post, Jan 18, 1 p. 11) In the years

after it was established, following the Knapp Commission disclosures,

the New York City police departments internal affairs division was

considered one of the nations most effective in stalking corruption.

But that may not be the case anymore. Police sergeant Joseph Trimboli,

a department investigator, told the Mollen Commission that when he

tried to root out Dowd and other corrupt cops, his efforts were

blocked by higher-ups in the department. At one point, Trimboli

claimed, he was called to a meeting of police officials and told he

was under suspicion as a drug trafficker. ''They did not want this

investigation to exist, he said. (New York Times, April , 1 p.

5) It was at this time that New York City police commissioner, at the

time, Raymond Kelly announced a series of organizational changes,

including a larger staff and better-coordinated field investigations,

intended to improve internal affairs. His critics say those changes

dont go far enough. Much of that happened after Kellys reforms had

been announced. The Mollen Commission is recommend the establishment

of an outside monitoring agency, a move that Kelly and other police

brass have expressed some reservations about. ''No group is good at

policing itself, says Knapp Commission counsel Armstrong. ''It

doesnt hurt to have somebody looking over their shoulder. An

independent body, however, might be less effective at getting

co-operation from cops prone to close ranks against outsiders. ''You

have to have the confidence of officers and information about whats

going on internally, says former U.S. Attorney Thomas Puccio, who

prosecuted a number of police-corruption cases. (New York Times, April

, 1 p. 5) Getting that information was no easier when officers

were encouraged to report wrongdoing to authorities within their own

department. In many cities that have them, internal affairs divisions

are resented within the ranks for getting cops to turn in other cops

-- informers are even recruited from police-academy cadets -- and for

rarely targeting the brass. ''One of the things that has come out in

the hearings is a culture within the department which seems to permit

corruption to exist, says Walter Mack, a one time federal prosecutor

who is now New Yorks deputy commissioner of internal affairs. ''But

when youre talking about cultural change, youre talking about many

years. Its not something that occurs overnight. (New York Post,

June 14, 1 p. 8) Dowd, who was sentenced prison on guilty please,

put it another way. ''Cops dont want to turn in other cops, he

said. ''Cops dont want to be a rat. And even when honest cops are

willing to blow the whistle, there may not be anyone willing to

listen. (New York Times, Mar. , 1 p. 14) Is there a solution to

the police corruption problem? Probably not because since its

beginings, many aspects of policing have changed, but one thing that

has not is the existence of corruption. Police agenies, in an attempt

to elminate corruption have tried everything from increasing salaries,

requiring more training and education, and developing polices which

are intended to focus directly on factors leading to corruption. What

have all these changes done to eliminate or even decrease the

corruption problem? Little or nothing. Despite police departments

attempts to control corruption, it still occurs. Regardless of the

fact, police corruption cannot simply be over looked. Controling

corruption is the only way that we can really limit corruption,

because corruption is the by-product of the individual police officer,

societal views, and, police environmental factors. Therefore control

must come from not only the police department, but also must require

the assistance and support of the community members. Controling

corruption from the departmental level requires a strong leadership

organization, because corruption can take place any where from the

patrol officer to the chief. The top administrator must make it clear

from the start that he and the other members of the department are

against any form of corrupt activity, and that it will not be

tollerated in any way, shape, or form. If a police administrator does

not act strongly with disciplinary action against any corrupt

activity, the message conveyed to other officers within the department

will not be that of intimated nature. In addition it may even increase

corruption, because officers feel no actions will be taken against

them. Another way that police agencies can control its corruption

problem starts orginally in the academy. Ethical decisions and

behavior should be promoted, because failing to do make officers aware

of the consequences of corruption does nothing but encourages it.

Finally, many police departments, especially large ones, have an

Internal Affairs unit which operates to investigate improper conduct

of police departments. These units some times are run within the

department or can be a total outside agency to insure that there is

not corruption from within the Internal Affairs unit, as was alleged

in the 1 NYPD corruption scandal. Such a unit may be all that is

need to prevent many officers from being tempted into falling for

corrupt behavior patterns. Although the police agaency should be the

main source of controling its own corruption problem, there also

requires some support and assistance from the local community. It is

important that the public be educated to the negative affects of

corruption on their police agency. They should be taught that even

graitudes (the most basic and common form of police corruption) is

only a catalyst for more and future corruption. The community may even

go as far as establishing review boards, and investigative bodies to

help keep a careful eye on the agency. If we do not act to try and

control it, the costs can be enormous, because it affects not only the

individual, his department, the law enforcement community as a whole,

but society as well. Police corruption can be controlled; it just

takes a little extra effort. And In the long run, that effort will be

well worth it to both the agency and the community. (Walker, 1 p.

8)

The powers given by the state to the police to use force have

always caused concern. Although improvements have been made to control

corruption, numerous opportunities exist for deviant and corrupt

practices. The opportunity to aquire power in excess of that which is

legally permitted or to misuse power is always available. The police

subculture is a contributing factor to these practices, because

officers who often act in a corrupt manner are often over looked, and

condoned by other members of the subculture. As mentioned from the

very begining of this report the problem of police deviance and

corruption will never be completely solved, just as the police will

never be able to solve the crime problem in our society. One step in

the right direction, however, is the monitoring and control of the

police and the appropriate use of police style to enforce laws and to

provide service to the public.

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