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TAOISM AND BUDDHISM
Introduction
One dominant perception within Taoist and Buddhist is the belief in some form of reincarnation. The idea that life does not end when one dies is an integral part of their religions and the culture of the Chinese people. Each religion has a different approach or pathway to this ultimate goal and of applying this concept to its beliefs. This paper will describe a brief history of each religion, the beliefs, teachings or pathways to obtain this goal and the concept of reincarnation as they apply to Taoism and Buddhism.
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History
Scholars believe that Taoism began as a way of thinking around the sixth century B.C.E. But the roots of Taoist thought are much older than that. They are as old as the oldest legends and beliefs of the Chinese people. For many Taoist believers, Taoism can be traced to the great and wise ruler Huang Di, also known as the Yellow Emperor. (Hartz 16) Like the Yellow Emperor centuries before him, the man on whose teachings Taoism is based is semi-legendary. No one is really sure whether or not he existed. It has been suggested that he was not one person but a composite of many wise men of his time. Still, the earliest written history of China, written around the second century B.C.E. includes a biographical sketch a man. He became known at Laozi (Lao Tzu), which is not a name, but a title meaning "The Old One" or "The Master." (Hartz 0) Taoism currently has about 0 million followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan. About 0,000 Taoists live in North America; 1,70 in Canada (11 census). (Manning)
Buddhism is one of the major religions of the world. It is believed to be founded by Siddhartha (wish-fulfiller) Gautama, who lived in northern India from c.560 to c.480 BC. This founder of Buddhism was the son a chief of the hill tribe of Shakyas, who gave up family life to become an ascetic when he was some twenty-nine years old. After some years he emerged as the leader, Buddha, of a band of followers who pursued the "Middle Way" between extreme asceticism and worldly life. (De Bary 6) Buddhism rose as a monastic movement during the time of Brahman tradition. The Buddhist movement was open to people of all castes, denying that a person's worth could be judge by their blood. Today Buddhism is one of the major religions of the world. Its followers have divided into two main branches. The Theravada, or "Way of the Elders," the more conservative of the two, it is mainly found in India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Cambodia. The Mahayana, or "Great Vehicle," is more liberal. It is mainly found in Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and China.
Teachings of Tao
Tao (pronounced Dow) can be roughly translated into English as "the path," or "the way." It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It refers to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female.) (Manning) Taoism has provided an alternative to the Confucian tradition in China. Tao is thought to be the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life. Each believers goal is to become one with the Tao. The priesthood views the many gods as manifestations of the one Dao, which could not be represented as an image or a particular thing. The concept of a personified deity is foreign to them, as is the concept of the creation of the universe. Thus, they do not pray as Christians do; there is no God to hear the prayers or to act upon them. They seek answers to lifes problems through inner meditation and outer observation. (Manning) Time is cyclical, not linear as in Western thinking. Taoists generally have an interest in promoting health and vitality.
The Taoist path to salvation is called Wu Wei, meaning "the principle of non-action. The way to attain unity with the Tao involves no effort, ambition, discipline, or education. Therefore, each person has an equal opportunity to attain balance. It involves surrender to nature since every person is by definition part of the Tao, there is no need or reason to seek it elsewhere. Furthermore, everyone has direct access to the Tao because the Tao is connected to reality, and everyone is a part of reality. In summary, there is no need to seek answers outside of oneself. Through non-action the answer is revealed through ones own existence.
The center of priestly life and of all Taoist practice is meditation. Meditation is often associated with Buddhism and other faiths from India; but long before Buddhism came to China, Taoists were using a form of meditation to help them come into harmony with the ultimate reality of the universe. The concept of Wu Wei, is central to Taoist meditation. It is the practice of quietism of letting go all worldly thought and action so that Tao may enter. Taoist believe that time spent in meditation prolongs life. In Taoist belief, longevity is important, because the longer one lives, the greater one's chances are of achieving perfect harmony with the Tao (Hartz 11) It has been said that someone can learn meditation in a day but must practice it for a lifetime in order to understand it fully. Learning Taoist meditation can take a lifetime.
The goal in Taoism is to achieve Tao, to "fined the way." Tao is the ultimate reality, a presence that existed before the universe was formed and which continues to guide the world and everything it. Tao is sometimes identified as "the Mother," or the source of all things. Its source is not a god or a supreme being as with Christians, for Taoism is not monotheistic. The focus is not to worship one god, but instead on coming into harmony with Tao.
Teachings of Buddhism - The Four Noble Truths
At the core of the Buddha's enlightenment was the realization of the Four Noble Truths (1) Life is suffering. This is more than a mere recognition of the presence of suffering in existence. It is a statement that, in its very nature, human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment of death. Even death brings no relief, for the Buddha accepted the Hindu idea of life as cyclical, with death leading to further rebirth. () All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment, and grasping that results from such ignorance. () Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. (4) The path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. (McDermott)
These truths are the basis for all schools of Buddhism. The fourth truth describes the way to overcome personal desire through the Eightfold Path. Buddha called his path the "Middle Way," because it lies between a life of luxury and a life of poverty. Not everyone can reach the goal of Nirvana, but every Buddhist is at least on the path correct towards enlightenment. To achieve Nirvana the Buddhist must follow the steps of the Eightfold Path (1) Right Understanding, comprehending reality correctly through deep realization of the Four Nobles Truths. () Right thought or motives. To uncover any "unwholesome" emotional roots behind our thinking. () Right Speech. To relinquish our propensity to vain talk, gossip, tale bearing, harsh words, and lying, and to use communication instead in the service of truth and harmony. (4) Right Action. Observing the five basic precepts for moral conduct avoid destroying life, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants. (5) Right Livelihood. Being sure that one's way of making a living does not violate the five precepts. One's trade should not harm others or disrupt social harmony. (6) Right Effort. The continual striving to cut off "unwholesome states," past, present, and future. (7) Right Mindfulness. The way to liberation is said to be through the mind. We are urged to be aware in every moment. (8) Right Meditation. The mental discipline to the quieting of the mind itself. (Fisher 145) Compliance to the path does not guarantee reaching Nirvana, but it is the only path that leads to Nirvana. Only through following this path established by Buddha does one have a chance to reach enlightenment, to free oneself from the continuous rounds of birth, death and rebirth, to reach the ultimate goal - to be absorbed into a state of Nirvana. (De Bary 16)
Karma
The transition from one stage to another, or the progression within a stage is based on the actions of the Buddhist. All actions are simply the display of thought, the will of man. This will is caused by character, and character is manufactured from karma. Karma means action or doing. Any kind of intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded as karma. All good and bad actions constitute karma. As is the karma, so is the will of the man. A persons karma determines what he deserves and what goals can be achieved. The Buddhists past life actions determine present standing in life and current actions determine the next life. The karmic process operates through a kind of natural moral law rather than through a system of divine judgment. One's karma determines such matters as one's species, beauty, intelligence, longevity, wealth, and social status. According to the Buddha, karma of varying types can lead to rebirth as a human, an animal, a hungry ghost, a denizen of hell, or even one of the Hindu gods. (McDermott)
Nirvana
Nirvana, defined as the unconditional love, permanent values - the Real world, our heaven. No egos and no judgments, just God in all His Persons - and peace, joy, truth and freedom - and the Eternal moment. We enter Nirvana through the act of meditation. (Shakya) The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is release from the round of phenomenal existence with its inherent suffering. To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana, an enlightened state in which the fires of greed, hatred, and ignorance have been quenched. Not to be confused with total annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond definition. After attaining nirvana, the enlightened individual may continue to live, burning off any remaining karma until a state of final nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of death. (McDermott) In theory, the goal of nirvana is attainable by anyone, although it is a realistic goal only for members of the monastic community. For those unable to pursue the ultimate goal, the proximate goal of better rebirth through improved karma is an option. This lesser goal is generally pursued by lay Buddhists in the hope that it will eventually lead to a life in which they are capable of pursuing final enlightenment. (McDermott)
Comparison
The ultimate goal for both religions is to achieve immortality. The Taoist called this ultimate goal Tao, while the Buddhist seek Nirvana. Whatever the name, the followers of these religions believe there is an existence beyond life which can be achieved provided the right path or behavior is followed. The path to Tao and Nirvana are similar, yet different. Both believe there is an inner light, which guides a person in the right direction to the ultimate goal. Personal desires must be forsaken to enable the inner light to guide a person to achieve eternal bliss. The inner light concept is similar, but the actual path is the difference between Taoism and Buddhism. The path to Tao is individual, it comes from within. No one can define a path for the Taoist, it must come from the inner light. Tao means, "the way," but in the original and succeeding manuscripts no direct path is explored or expounded. Desire, ambition, fame, and selfishness are seen as complications. That idea is consistent with Buddhist teachings; it is the personal life of each individual that gives Taoism its special form. The path, for the Buddhist, toward enlightenment was defined by Buddha in his Eightfold Path. Only through following this path can the Buddhist reach Nirvana.
Reincarnation - Tao
Taoism upholds the belief in the survival of the spirit after death. This cycle of life has no beginning and can go on forever without an end. Taoist believe birth is not a beginning, and death is not an end. There is continuity without a starting point. Applying reincarnation theory to Taoism is the belief that the soul never dies, a persons soul is eternal. Tao is formless; it stands alone without change and reaches everywhere without harm. The Taoist is told to use the light that is inside to revert to the natural clearness of sight. By divesting oneself of all external distractions and desires, only then can one achieve Tao. In ancient days a Taoist that had transcended birth and death, achieved Tao, was said to have cut the Thread of Life. In Taoism, the soul or spirit does not die at death. The soul is not reborn; it simply migrates to another life. This cycle of life has no beginning and can go on forever without an end. This process, the Taoist version of reincarnation, is repeated until Tao is achieved.
Buddhism Wheel of rebirth
The followers of the Buddha believe that life goes on and on in many reincarnations or rebirths. The eternal hope for all followers of Buddha is that through reincarnation one comes back into successively better lives - until one achieves the goal of being free from pain and suffering and not having to come back again. This wheel of rebirth goes on forever until one achieves Nirvana. The Buddhist definition of Nirvana is the highest state of spiritual bliss, as absolute immortality through absorption of the soul into itself, but preserving individuality. Birth is not the beginning and death is not the end. The ultimate goal for every Buddhist, Nirvana, is to accomplish total enlightenment and liberation. By achieving this goal, one can be liberated from the never ending round of birth, death, and rebirth. Transmigration, the Buddhist cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, does not involve the reincarnation of a spirit, but only the rebirth of a consciousness containing the seeds of good and evil deeds. (Knierim)
Comparison
The similarities between Taoism and Buddhism in the belief of life after death far outweigh the differences. Both religions believe the individual must focus on the self to achieve the ultimate goal. To focus on oneself, all desires and personal ambitions must be forsaken. One must focus on the self and the proper way of life to reach immortality. The cycle of life continues indefinitely until the Thread of Life is broken. Only through proper living, by following the correct path guided by the inner light, can one achieve the ultimate goal of Tao or Nirvana.
Conclusion
One major difference between Taoism and Buddhism is the concept of karma to the Buddhist. This idea that all actions are the display of thought, the will of man, is known as karma. Karma determines the Buddhist actions and position in life. A persons karma limits the goals, which can be achieved. Karma determines where in the cycle of birth, death and rebirth the consciousness returns. This return can be in the form of an animal or human, and the Buddhist must progress through a hierarchy to achieve Nirvana (Leek 171). The Taoist has no concept similar to karma, and no mention of the soul migrating to an animal form. The determining factor to ones life is contained in the individual behavior for the Taoist. By forsaking personal desires in life, by concentrating of the self, a longer life is prolonged. Eventually, by following the inner light, immortality can be achieved.
Bibliography
Fisher, Mary Pat Living Religions Oxnard Fall 14-5.
Ming-Dao, Deng. Everyday Toa, Living with balance and harmony. New York HarperSan Francisco, 16
Hartz, Paula P Taoism, world religions. New York Facts On File, 1
Ross, Nancy Wilson. The World of Zen. New York. Vintage Books, 160
Jurhi, Edward J. The Great Religions of the Modern World. New Jersey Princenton, 164
De Bary, William. The Buddhist tradition in India, China & Japan. New York Random House, 16
Shakya, Ming Zhen. What Is Zen Buddhism?. July 00
http//www.hsuyun.org/Dharma/zbohy/Literature/essays/mzs/whatzen
Manning, Gerald. Taoism Information Page. . The World Wide Web virtual
Library. June 00 http//www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm
McDermott, James Paul. "Buddhism". Encarta Encyclopedia . 18
Knierim, Thomas . Buddhism. The Big View. 0 January 00. http//www.thebigview.com/Buddhism
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